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Article

Analysis of the Spatial Distribution Characteristics of Emerging Pollutants in China

by
Man Zhang
1,2,
Yong Sun
3,
Bin Xun
1,2,* and
Baoyin Liu
4,*
1
College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Northwest University, Xi’an 710127, China
2
Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Earth Surface System and Environmental Carrying Capacity, Xi’an 710127, China
3
School of Public Administration, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou 510006, China
4
Institutes of Science and Development, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Water 2023, 15(21), 3782; https://doi.org/10.3390/w15213782
Submission received: 25 September 2023 / Revised: 20 October 2023 / Accepted: 24 October 2023 / Published: 29 October 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Quality, Water Security and Risk Assessment)
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Abstract

:
Pollutant types are increasing along with the rapid development of society and economy. Some emerging pollutants from chemicals have begun to appear and endanger public and ecosystem health. However, the research and development of emerging pollutant monitoring technology is still in its infancy, with no complete monitoring system in place. This makes it impossible to access and identify the spatial pattern of emerging pollutants. Therefore, this paper reviews the existing quantitative research results on four common emerging pollutants in China’s water environment—namely, endocrine disruptors, brominated flame retardants, perfluorinated compounds, and microplastics—extracts the quantitative monitoring results of emerging pollutants in the case studies, and outlines the spatial distribution characteristics of emerging pollutants in the water environment. The results show that the emerging pollutants have a large distribution area that has covered most of China. The level of pollution from emerging pollutants correlates with the level of economic development and the pollution level in economically developed regions such as the Yangtze River Delta, the Pearl River Delta, and the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei region is significantly higher than in other regions. This study provides a reference for the prevention and control of emerging pollutants in China.

1. Introduction

In recent years, with the improvement of living standards, people have paid increasing attention to the quality of the ecological environment. Currently, a relatively comprehensive water quality monitoring system has been established for traditional pollutants such as nutrients [1] (nitrogen, phosphorus, etc.), organics [2] (xylene, PCBs, etc.), and heavy metals [3] (mercury, nickel, etc.). However, some emerging pollutants have surfaced and made certain impacts on the ecological environment and human health [4,5,6,7,8]. Some research found that emerging pollutants such as endocrine disruptors (EDCs), perfluorinated compounds (PFCs), brominated flame retardants (BFRs), and microplastics (MPs) are widely distributed in water bodies and have significant impacts on ecosystems and human health [9,10,11,12,13]. For example, the frequently detected EDCs in the environment and human samples, such as organophosphates (OPEs), can disrupt thyroid hormone levels and liver receptors in the human body, causing thyroid disruption and DNA damage, and affecting liver metabolism [14,15]. Perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), which are widely present in tap water and surface water, can induce oxidative stress and acute toxicity in human macrophages and zebrafish embryos [16,17]. BFRs are present in almost all chemical products, and tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) is one of the most common types. It can cause hemolysis in human red blood cells and mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation in rats. It also reduces the survival rate of young fish [18,19]. Microplastics are distributed throughout the entire aquatic ecosystem and can be ingested by various animals and plants. They can be toxic to human lung cells, liver cells, and brain cells, as well as cause damage to plant root systems, affecting their ability to absorb water and nutrients [20,21]. Studies have shown that these emerging pollutants may disrupt the normal functioning of the human endocrine system, leading to reproductive issues, neurological problems, immune system disorders, metabolic issues, and cancers [22,23,24]. They also have the potential to cause damage to the environmental ecosystem and can negatively impact the stability and diversity of aquatic and terrestrial organisms, as well as disrupt food chains, ecological balance, and biodiversity [25,26]. Additionally, emerging pollutants are characterized by their persistence and bioaccumulation. They are difficult to degrade in the environment and can accumulate within living organisms, and this accumulation can lead to a gradual increase in concentration within the food chain and ultimately enter the human body [27,28,29]. Therefore, it is crucial to conduct comprehensive monitoring for emerging pollutants.
Research has been conducted on the monitoring remediation of emerging pollutants in small-scale areas due to their impact on the ecological environment and human health. For instance, the bioaccumulation of specific emerging pollutants has been monitored through the collection of samples from animals, plants, and human tissues using biomonitoring techniques [30]. Biological indicators such as mussels and fish have also been used for monitoring the concentration of emerging pollutants in field and laboratory settings [31]. In addition to monitoring, there have been initial studies on the remediation of emerging pollutants in water bodies. Nanobiochar [32,33] and bioelectrochemical systems [34] are among the methods used for the removal of emerging pollutants from water. However, there are concerns regarding the accumulation of pollutants within the biochar and the potential re-release of these pollutants into the water [35]. Additionally, bioelectrochemical systems have complex operation requirements. As a result, the methods and technologies for the remediation of emerging pollutants are not yet perfect. The existing monitoring and remediation measures have been implemented only in small-scale areas, providing valuable data for these specific regions [36,37,38,39]. However, the lack of quantitative monitoring techniques hinders the large-scale implementation of these methods [25,26]. The incomplete development of technology for establishing a comprehensive water quality monitoring system for emerging pollutants has also limited the availability of widespread monitoring data [40,41,42,43]. The complexity of geographical environments further hampers the extrapolation of small-scale data to larger areas, preventing the comprehensive mapping of emerging pollutant distribution. Therefore, this study aims to extract and analyze China’s regional concentration monitoring data based on the literature to obtain spatial distribution patterns of emerging pollutants in the area.
China is currently facing a serious pollution problem of emerging contaminants in its water environment. These pollutants mainly come from industrial emissions [28], agricultural activities [29], atmospheric deposition, and other sources, posing a significant threat to the environment and human health [44,45]. In 2021, Fan et al. [46] conducted quantitative monitoring of several highly concerned EDCs in water bodies in Jiangsu Province and found that the average concentration of these endocrine disruptors was higher than 300 ng/L. In 2013, Wang et al. [47] quantitatively monitored the concentration of PFCs in the surface water of the Han River in Wuhan, and the study showed that the maximum concentration of total PFCs was 568 ng/L. In 2021, Xia et al. [48] conducted quantitative monitoring of MPs in the surface water of Sangou Bay, China and found that the average concentration of MPs was 20.06 item/L. Although there has been some progress in quantitative monitoring of emerging contaminants at a small scale, there is a lack of monitoring data at a large scale. This makes it difficult to accurately assess the distribution characteristics and the extent of the impact of emerging contaminants in China, thereby causing a challenge in formulating effective pollution control strategies. It is essential to obtain large-scale information on emerging pollutants in China. Therefore, this paper chooses the Chinese region as the research area, systematically reviews the relevant literature on emerging pollutants in China in the past decade, extracts the quantitative monitoring results of pollutants in the case study area, and constructs a spatial distribution map of emerging pollutants in Chinese water bodies. This spatial distribution map can help decision makers understand the distribution of emerging pollutants and provide a scientific basis for formulating pollution control measures.

2. Definition and Characterization of Emerging Pollutants

2.1. Definition of Emerging Pollutants

The definition of emerging pollutants is not yet clear. Different scholars have elaborated on the definition of emerging pollutants from different perspectives (Table 1). The initial definition of emerging pollutants only applied to newly emerging substances that cause environmental problems [49,50,51]. Later, it gradually extended from substances causing environmental problems to substances with potential environmental risks [49,50,51,52]. As more is known about emerging pollutants, people are realizing that not only emerging substances, but also substances that have previously existed but have recently posed environmental risks, and substances that have not yet been regulated by laws and standards can also be considered as emerging pollutants [49,50,51,52,53,54,55].
Based on the above understanding of emerging pollutants, we can summarize the definition of emerging pollutants as pollutants produced in production, construction, or other activities that are caused by human activities which clearly exist but have not been regulated or are poorly regulated by laws and regulations and are harmful or potentially harmful to the living environment or the ecological environment.

2.2. Characteristics of Emerging Pollutants

Compared to traditional pollutants such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, most of the emerging pollutants are more persistent, accumulative, and migratory. They can persist in the environment and are far more difficult to manage than traditional pollutants. The characteristics are specifically manifested as follows: (1) The chemical properties are very stable and not easy to degrade. For example, perfluorinated compounds refer to hydrocarbon compounds and their derivatives which are formed after all hydrogen atoms are replaced by fluorine atoms. Since fluorine is the most electronegative element, it makes the carbon–fluorine bond highly polar; therefore, perfluorinated compounds have chemical stability, surface activity, excellent temperature resistance, and so on [58,59,60], and are not easily decomposed in the environment. (2) The sources of emerging pollutants are widespread, as their superior chemical properties are used in all aspects of life. For example, brominated flame retardants, with their low cost, low addition amount, and good flame retardant performance, are widely used in products such as electrical appliances, textiles, automobiles, and building materials [61,62,63]. (3) Emerging pollutants are widely distributed. First, they are versatile. Due to the large demand in life, various new pollutants are used in various industries and products. For example, endocrine disruptors are widely used in the production of personal care products, detergents, thermal paper, and plastics [64,65]. Second, the distribution area is wide. Due to their strong migratory nature, they are found all over the world. For example, González-Pleiter [66] detected the presence of microplastics in freshwater in the Antarctic protected area. Third, they have a wide presence in various carriers. Emerging pollutants have been detected in various carriers such as air, water, and soil [67,68,69]. (4) Emerging pollutants possess various types of biological toxicity, including organ toxicity, neurotoxicity, and reproductive and developmental toxicity. They also have a certain degree of accumulation in organisms, posing certain harm or potential harm to the ecological environment or human health [70,71,72,73]. (5) Emerging pollutants have a certain incubation period, with pollution being lagging and remediation being long-term. Since pollutants need to accumulate to a certain concentration to cause environmental changes [74,75], the detection of pollution takes a certain amount of time. Moreover, the current imperfection of monitoring technology for new pollutants is more likely to cause lagging pollution.
Based on the definition and pollution characteristics of emerging pollutants, we select microplastics (MPs), brominated flame retardants (BFRs), perfluorinated compounds (PFCs), and endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) as the most common emerging pollutants. On the basis of the literature review, the spatial distribution characteristics of these four emerging pollutants in China were studied.

3. Methodology

3.1. Literature Situation

We searched for keywords such as “emerging pollutants”, “endocrine disruptors”, “perfluorinated compounds”, “brominated flame retardants”, “microplastics”, “MPs”, “EDCs”, “PFCs”, “BFRs”, etc., and retrieved a total of 3158 related articles. As can be seen from Figure 1, from 2000 to 2022, the total number of articles on the study of emerging pollutants shows an upward trend; in particular, after 2010, the number of articles has risen sharply. This is mainly because around 2010, the harm of emerging pollutants to the public and the environment became increasingly obvious, and the academic community has paid more attention to the research of emerging pollutants since [52,53]. Although the number of quantitative literature is also increasing, there are less than 300 articles on the quantitative analysis of pollution. This reflects the underdeveloped monitoring technology of emerging pollutants in the world, which still needs to be improved.

3.2. Method of Extracting Pollutant Concentration Data

Due to the numerous carriers of emerging pollutants, e.g., plants, water bodies, atmosphere, sediments, etc., and the different measurement units used for different carriers (e.g., the concentration of EDCs in water bodies is usually expressed in ng/L, while in sediments, it is ng/Kg), it is difficult to convert the concentration values of pollutants between different carriers. Therefore, this study focuses on selecting the literature which studies water bodies and extracts the concentration values of pollutants between different water bodies. There are four methods for sampling and extracting the concentration of emerging pollutants from monitored water bodies, namely, surface water sampling [76,77], solid-phase extraction (SPE) sampling [78,79,80], vertical profiling sampling [81], and automatic water quality monitoring systems [82]. Although these different methods can monitor the concentration of emerging pollutants in water, the operational differences among these methods theoretically result in minimal variations in the obtained results. Therefore, in this study, we will not provide specific evaluations of these methods and only extract the final measured concentration values as the research results. Additionally, due to the existence of different pollution concentration values derived from the same water body in different literature, this study adheres to the following principles when extracting pollution concentration values. (1) Emerging pollutants are divided into four categories for extraction: EDCs, BFRs, PFCs, and MPs. These four categories all contain subcategories. If there are inconsistent values in the subcategories, the value with the greatest concentration in the subcategories is selected as the extraction result of this category. For example, Gong et al. [83] detected in 2011 that the concentration ranges of five types of EDCs in the Pearl River Delta rivers, namely OP (Octylphenol), NP (Nonylphenol), BPA (Bisphenol A), E1 (Estrone), and E2 (17a-ethynylestradiol), were 1.6–577 ng/L, 0.28–14.9 ng/L, 87–639 ng/L, 1.5–11.5 ng/L, and 1.1–1.7 ng/L, respectively. The maximum pollution concentration value of BPA (Bisphenol A) (87–639 ng/L) was selected as the pollution concentration of EDCs in the Pearl River Delta rivers. (2) If there are multiple quantitative monitoring results for the same body of water, the most recent monitoring result is extracted. For example, both Gang et al. [84] in 2016 and Guo et al. [85] in 2011 monitored the pollution concentration of PFCs in Tai Lake. This study chose the more recent pollution concentration data in 2016 as the extraction result. (3) If the years are also the same, then the larger concentration value is selected as the extraction result.

4. Result

4.1. The Characteristics of EDCs Distribution

From the distribution map of EDCs pollution concentration in the water body, it can be found that the concentration of EDCs pollution decreases from southeast to northwest. The distribution of quantitative monitoring results is most intensive in the southeast coastal area, while there are no quantitative monitoring results in the western region (Figure 2). However, on the whole, EDCs are widely distributed in China, such as Inner Mongolia, which is vast and sparsely populated, but a certain concentration of EDCs was also detected [86]. The Yangtze River is the longest river in China with a vast drainage area, which may lead to the accumulation of EDCs in the water, resulting in the highest detected concentration of EDCs is found in the Yangtze River region, reaching 144,000 ng/L [87]. There is a certain correlation between the level of economic development and the concentration of emerging pollutants. To some extent, the higher the level of economic development, the higher the concentration of pollutants detected. The Yangtze River Delta and the Pearl River Delta are economically developed regions in China, with abundant water resources and dense river networks. In terms of industrial level, these areas have large-scale industrial enterprises, petrochemical plants, and manufacturing clusters, involving sectors such as electronics, chemicals, textiles, machinery, etc., which produce a large amount of chemical products, petroleum products, and electricity. The high industrial level also brings about serious water pollution issues. Therefore, in China’s eastern coastal areas such as the Yangtze River Delta and southern coastal areas such as the Pearl River Delta, the economy is developed, monitoring points are densely distributed, and the concentration values are at a higher level.

4.2. The Characteristics of BFRs Distribution

At present, there are few quantitative monitoring studies on the distribution of BFRs in waterbodies. The sites in Figure 3 are sparse and dispersed. These sites are mainly distributed in the eastern region, especially in the Bohai Bay area, and the pollution concentration is high. In the western, northern, and central regions of China, quantitative monitoring of BFRs has been limited. The Bohai Bay region is an important economic area in Northeast China, with a high level of industrial development. It is home to numerous industrial parks, ports, and cities, covering industries such as petrochemicals, steel, energy, and equipment manufacturing. Located between the Bohai Sea and the Yellow Sea, the region is a convergence of ocean and rivers, with major rivers like the Yellow River and the Liao River running through it. The developed water system is conducive to transportation industries such as water transport and shipping, as well as the manufacturing of automobiles and vessels. However, the dense water network also contributes to the accumulation of pollutants, resulting in relatively high concentrations of BFRs detected in this region. The difference between the maximum and minimum concentration values of BFRs is large. The highest pollution concentration point is located in the Taihu Basin, with a concentration value of 2934.2 ng/L [88]. The point with the lowest pollution concentration is located in Dalian city, with a concentration value of 1.08 ng/L [89].

4.3. The Characteristics of PFCs Distribution

The monitoring and research on PFCs are primarily focused on China’s eastern, northeastern, southeastern, and southern coastal regions, while quantitative monitoring research on PFCs in the overall western regions is relatively limited. In comparison to the western regions, the eastern regions of China generally have a higher level of industrial development, with numerous industrial parks, important industrial cities, and a developed manufacturing industry. The eastern regions are also economically developed areas, with abundant water resources, larger water flow, and denser water networks. As a result, the distribution density of monitoring sites gradually decreases from the eastern coastal areas to the western inland areas (Figure 4). PFCs are widely distributed, and even in Tibet, PFCs have been found at the level of 0.322 ng/L [90]. In addition, PFCs have also been found in the Ulansuhai Nur [91] and Hohhot City [92] in Inner Mongolia, with concentrations of 263.45 ng/L and 1.8 ng/L, respectively. The pollution levels of PFCs are mostly at the intermediate level, with fewer areas at the maximum level. The areas with dense quantitative monitoring of PFCs are mainly concentrated in the Pearl River Delta, Yangtze River Delta, Dalian Bay, and Bohai Bay in China. These areas are located in the coastal and inland interchange zone, where the industry is developed, and emerging pollutants such as PFCs are easily generated.

4.4. The Characteristics of MPs Distribution

Of the four emerging pollutants, MPs are the most monitored. MPs are widely distributed in China, and quantitative monitoring studies of MPs have been conducted in remote areas such as Qinghai–Tibet Plateau [93] and Xinjiang [94] regions. The areas with the most intensive quantitative monitoring of MPs are located in the eastern, southern, and central parts of China, which are also the areas with the highest monitoring concentration levels (Figure 5). The eastern, central, and southern regions of China have numerous rivers, lakes, and reservoirs forming a complex water network system. They also have large water bodies such as the East China Sea, South China Sea, and Taihu Lake, which are of great significance for regional economic development and water resource utilization. These regions are economically developed areas with a high level of industrialization. They are major manufacturing clusters, with many industrial parks and important industrial cities involved in various industries including manufacturing, petrochemicals, electronics, and automotive manufacturing. These areas have a large number of manufacturing enterprises and supply chains, playing a vital role in China’s economic development. Due to intense industrial activities and urbanization, high concentrations of microplastics (MPs) in water bodies have led to water quality deterioration. This is mainly caused by industrial wastewater, agricultural non-point source pollution, and urban domestic sewage. There is little quantitative monitoring research on MPs in the northeastern region of China. The dense areas of MPs distribution include the Pearl River Delta, Yangtze River Delta, Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei region, and other areas with dense populations and advanced industries. These areas are also located in the downstream areas, where MPs gradually accumulate during river flow and accumulate to the maximum concentration at the estuary. This shows that the concentration of emerging pollutants is closely related to the level of local economic development, natural geographical conditions, and geographical location. The abundance of MPs in the Yellow River in China is the highest, with 930,000 items/m3 [95], while that in Qinghai Lake is the smallest, with 0.031 items/m3 [96].

4.5. Overall Characteristics

In this study, 225 points with quantitative monitoring results were extracted by referring to the relevant literature (Supplementary Materials Tables S1–S4) [47,84,86,87,89,90,91,92,93,94,95,96,97,98,99,100,101,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110,111,112,113,114,115,116,117,118,119,120,121,122,123,124,125,126,127,128,129,130,131,132,133,134,135,136,137,138,139,140,141,142,143,144,145,146,147,148,149,150,151,152,153,154,155,156,157,158,159,160,161,162,163,164,165,166,167,168,169,170,171,172,173,174,175,176,177,178,179,180,181,182,183,184,185,186,187,188,189,190,191,192,193,194,195,196,197,198,199,200,201,202,203,204,205,206,207,208,209,210,211,212,213,214,215,216,217,218,219,220,221,222,223,224,225,226,227,228,229,230,231,232,233,234,235,236,237,238,239,240,241,242,243,244,245,246,247,248,249,250,251,252,253,254,255,256,257,258,259,260,261,262,263,264,265,266,267,268,269,270,271,272,273,274,275,276,277,278,279,280,281,282,283,284,285,286,287,288,289,290,291,292,293,294,295]. The points of the four types of emerging pollutants are mainly concentrated in economically developed areas such as the Yangtze River Delta, the Pearl River Delta, and Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei region. These regions are highly developed in industrialization and urbanization, serving as important manufacturing centers in China, with strong industrial agglomeration effects. They have a large-scale economy and a complete industrial chain. In terms of geographical location, they are all located in river basins or estuarine areas, with abundant water resources. However, with the acceleration of industrial and urbanization processes, these regions are also facing challenges of water resources supply–demand imbalance and water pollution issues. Therefore, these areas have a variety of emerging pollutants with high pollution concentrations. From a national perspective, the quantity and concentration of various emerging pollutants are increasing from west to east, and there are more types of emerging pollutants in coastal areas and their concentration is higher than that in central and western regions. In recent decades, China has vigorously built urban agglomerations and accelerated industrial clusters. In particular, the economic scale of coastal cities continues to expand, and the emission of emerging pollutants is also rising. In addition, emerging pollutants are prone to accumulate in the process of river flow. The eastern region is located at the mouth of the river, so the concentration of emerging pollutants accumulates to the highest value here. The presence of emerging pollutants has also been detected in the relatively economically backward regions of Xinjiang and Tibet. Although the current pollutants in the two regions are single and the pollution concentration is low, it also reflects, to a certain extent, the widespread problem of the distribution of emerging pollutants in China.

5. Conclusions and Discussion

5.1. Emerging Pollutants Are Widely Distributed in China

The distribution of emerging pollutants basically covers most areas of China. Relevant research results show that emerging pollutants exist in all regions of China, except parts of the northwest. Compared to traditional pollutants such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, most emerging pollutants are more persistent, accumulative, and migratory. They can be adsorbed on suspended particles in the air or water and migrate long distances to reach remote polar regions. The detection of EDCs in Xinjiang and Tibet proves this point. Therefore, it can be inferred that emerging pollutants are distributed in most areas of China. The lack of research in the northwest is more due to the sparse distribution of rivers, relatively small population, and thus fewer researchers choosing this area as their research area.

5.2. The Distribution of Emerging Pollutants Has a Certain Correlation with the Level of Economic Development

The analyzed results indicate that the key pollution areas of emerging pollutants are mainly concentrated in economically developed regions such as the Yangtze River Delta, Pearl River Delta, and Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei region. Due to the production and use of various chemicals, a large amount of emerging pollutants is generated. The quantity and types of chemicals produced and used in economically developed areas are significantly higher than in other areas. In the absence of a comprehensive chemical management system and classification registration system, the extensive use of chemicals by enterprises and the public has led to relatively high levels of emerging pollutants.

5.3. The Concentration of Emerging Pollutants in China Is Relatively High

The average values of emerging pollutants extracted from the 225 points studied are as follows: EDCs 5044.16 ng/L, BFRs 828.43 ng/L, PFCs 669.69 ng/L, and MPs 44,145.57 item/m3. These values are significantly higher than the pollution levels in other countries. As researchers tend to choose areas with severe pollution as case studies, these average values are significantly higher than the current average levels of emerging pollutants in China. However, these data are sufficient to prove that the pollution levels in China’s key pollution areas are relatively high. Although there is little qualitative monitoring research on emerging pollutants in some areas of China, such as Xinjiang, the monitoring concentration of new pollutants in Xinjiang is also at a high level. In the eastern regions of China, the quantitative monitoring concentrations of emerging pollutants such as MPs, PFCs, and EDCs are all at high levels. In addition, the quantitative monitoring concentration of MPs in the eastern regions of China is at the highest level in the world among existing studies. Therefore, the concentration of emerging pollutants in China is relatively high.

5.4. The Geographical Distribution of Emerging Pollutants Is Quite Distinct

The density and concentration of emerging pollutants in China decrease from the southeast coastal areas to the northwest inland areas of China. Since the level of economic development in China also decreases from the southeast coast to the northwest inland, and the economic level is related to the scale of industrial development, there is a correlation between the distribution of new pollutants and the level of economic development in China. As a result, the higher the level of economic development in the region, the more dense the distribution of new pollutants and the greater the concentration.

5.5. Discussion

First, we inferred the basic spatial distribution pattern of emerging pollutants in China based on the literature data. After understanding the spatial distribution pattern of emerging pollutants in China, government departments can develop region-specific measures. For high-pollution areas, the government can implement measures such as restricting industrial emissions, strengthening law enforcement, and promoting clean production in high-polluting enterprises. For low-pollution areas, efforts can be focused on enhancing environmental monitoring and protection and encouraging the development of green industries. As the spread of emerging pollutants often transcends the boundaries of a single region, cross-regional cooperation is needed. The government can work with neighboring regions, relevant departments, and international organizations to formulate cross-regional measures to deal with pollution, and share data, technology, and experience so as to comprehensively solve the problem of pollution by emerging pollutants. The government should also establish relevant laws, regulations, and policies to support the implementation of targeted measures, while strengthening law enforcement efforts to crack down on illegal activities.
Second, we proved that China exhibits higher levels of emerging pollutant concentrations compared to other parts of the world. As one of the largest manufacturing countries in the world, China has high industrial and energy consumption. Some industrial production processes produce more emissions of emerging pollutants, resulting in high levels of pollutant concentrations. Under such circumstances, the public should ensure their own drinking water and food safety, such as prioritizing treated drinking water and choosing to buy food that meets food safety standards, in order to reduce the risk of ingesting pollutants. The public should also actively participate in environmental protection actions and support the government in implementing targeted measures to reduce the generation of emerging pollutants. Enterprises should carry out technological upgrading and improvement measures, promote the recycling of resources and the economical use of energy, strengthen their internal environmental management and supervision, and set up sound internal auditing and monitoring mechanisms. Enterprises should also actively participate in environmental protection actions, support environmental organizations and projects, promote the development of green industries, and reduce the pollution of water bodies by emerging pollutants.
Third, we demonstrated the pollution caused by emerging pollutants has a wide range of transmission. In the future, water body models and hydrological data should be utilized to analyze the transmission pathways and diffusion characteristics of emerging pollutants, revealing the conduction laws and behaviors of emerging pollutants in different water bodies. It is important to investigate the influences of water flow, water body characteristics, and human activities on their transmission and strengthen the research on the conductivity of emerging pollutants. The core objective of this study is to extract historical concentration values of emerging pollutants in order to obtain the spatial distribution patterns and concentration distributions of emerging pollutants in China. By doing so, it aims to increase the attention of the Chinese government towards emerging pollutants and provide references for the formulation of policies and regulations regarding emerging pollutants in China.
Hence, it is suggested that on one hand, key regions such as the Yangtze River Delta, Pearl River Delta, and Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei region should be selected to carry out pilot surveys of new types of pollutants. The focus should be on understanding the production and usage of products containing typical emerging pollutants in industries, agriculture, and daily life, compiling a list of typical pollutant emissions, and strengthening the prevention and control of emerging pollutants. On the other hand, research on the mechanisms of emerging pollutant generation and migration and the development of monitoring technologies should be strengthened. A comprehensive monitoring system should be gradually established to fully grasp the data on the pollution levels of emerging pollutants.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/w15213782/s1, Table S1: Distribution Area and Concentration of Microplastics; Table S2: Distribution Area and Concentration of Endocrine Disruptors; Table S3: Distribution Area and Concentration of Perfluorinated Compounds; Table S4: Distribution Area and Concentration of Brominated Flame Retardants. References [97,98,99,100,101,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110,111,112,113,114,115,116,117,118,119,120,121,122,123,124,125,126,127,128,129,130,131,132,133,134,135,136,137,138,139,140,141,142,143,144,145,146,147,148,149,150,151,152,153,154,155,156,157,158,159,160,161,162,163,164,165,166,167,168,169,170,171,172,173,174,175,176,177,178,179,180,181,182,183,184,185,186,187,188,189,190,191,192,193,194,195,196,197,198,199,200,201,202,203,204,205,206,207,208,209,210,211,212,213,214,215,216,217,218,219,220,221,222,223,224,225,226,227,228,229,230,231,232,233,234,235,236,237,238,239,240,241,242,243,244,245,246,247,248,249,250,251,252,253,254,255,256,257,258,259,260,261,262,263,264,265,266,267,268,269,270,271,272,273,274,275,276,277,278,279,280,281,282,283,284,285,286,287,288,289,290,291,292,293,294,295] are citied in the Supplementary Materials.

Author Contributions

M.Z. conducted the data collection, data analysis, data plotting, and wrote the paper. Y.S., B.X., and B.L. contributed to the writing of the paper. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by [the Program for Key Science and Technology Innovation Team in Shaanxi Province] grant number [2014KCT-27].

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Derived data supporting the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author on request.

Acknowledgments

All authors thank the anonymous reviewers and the editor for the constructive comments on the earlier version of the manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Annual number of articles on emerging pollutants.
Figure 1. Annual number of articles on emerging pollutants.
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Figure 2. Distribution of Endocrine Disruptors in China based on Literature Research.
Figure 2. Distribution of Endocrine Disruptors in China based on Literature Research.
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Figure 3. Distribution of Brominated Flame Retardants in China based on Literature Research.
Figure 3. Distribution of Brominated Flame Retardants in China based on Literature Research.
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Figure 4. Distribution of Perfluorinated Compounds in China based on Literature Research.
Figure 4. Distribution of Perfluorinated Compounds in China based on Literature Research.
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Figure 5. Distribution of Microplastics in China based on Literature Research.
Figure 5. Distribution of Microplastics in China based on Literature Research.
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Table 1. Definition of emerging pollutants.
Table 1. Definition of emerging pollutants.
YearAuthorThe Definition of Emerging Pollutants
2006Field [51]Emerging pollutants refer to those caused by human activities which are currently known to exist but are not yet regulated or inadequately regulated by laws and standards, and pose a threat to living and ecological environments. These pollutants are produced in all aspects of production, construction, or other activities.
2008Farre [49]Newly emerged pollutants are defined as compounds currently not covered by existing water quality regulations, previously unstudied, and considered to be potential threats to environmental ecosystems as well as human health and safety.
2010Houtman [50]The first category consists of compounds newly introduced into the environment, such as industrial compounds that have only recently been developed; the second category of compounds may have been present for a long time but have only recently been detected in the environment; the third category of emerging pollutants consists of compounds that may have been known for a long time but have only recently been considered potentially harmful to ecosystems or humans.
2011Bell [56]The term “emerging pollutants” mainly refers to pollutants for which there are currently no regulations requiring monitoring or public reporting of their presence in our country’s water supply or wastewater discharge.
2011Deblonde [52]Emerging pollutants refer to new products or chemicals without regulatory status, of which the impact on the environment and human health is unknown.
2012Thomaidis [57]The term “emerging pollutants” refers to substances released into the environment for which there are currently no regulations in place for their environmental monitoring.
2014Sauve [54]Naturally occurring, manufactured, or artificially created chemicals or materials that are now found or suspected to be present in various environmental compartments, the toxicity or persistence of which is likely to significantly alter the metabolism of organisms.
2015Geissen [55]Emerging pollutants (EPs) are defined as synthetic or naturally occurring chemicals that are not commonly monitored in the environment but have the potential to enter the environment and cause known or suspected adverse ecological and/or human health effects.
2021Li [53]Newly discovered or focused pollutants that pose a threat to the ecological environment or human health which have not yet been included in management or the existing management measures are insufficient to effectively prevent and control their risks.
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Zhang, M.; Sun, Y.; Xun, B.; Liu, B. Analysis of the Spatial Distribution Characteristics of Emerging Pollutants in China. Water 2023, 15, 3782. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15213782

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Zhang M, Sun Y, Xun B, Liu B. Analysis of the Spatial Distribution Characteristics of Emerging Pollutants in China. Water. 2023; 15(21):3782. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15213782

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Zhang, Man, Yong Sun, Bin Xun, and Baoyin Liu. 2023. "Analysis of the Spatial Distribution Characteristics of Emerging Pollutants in China" Water 15, no. 21: 3782. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15213782

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