Governance and Sustainability Challenges in the Water Policy of Morocco 1995–2020: Insights from the Middle Draa Valley
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
3. Results
3.1. Policy Document Analysis
3.1.1. Definition and Framing of Policy Problems
3.1.2. Definition and Framing of Policy Goals and Solutions
“Their implementation [solutions to adapt to new water availability conditions] as part of an innovative and integrated strategy for the entire water sector should enable the Kingdom to address the most pressing problems and make water a decisive factor in our sustainable development”[12] (p. 7)
- Ultimate goals
- To meet national water needs to enable the socio-economic development of the country
- To improve rural living conditions by increasing rural income and employment
- To ensure the sustainability of the irrigation sector
- Operational goals and solutions
- To increase water supply
- To increase water’s value
- Water saving/water demand management
- Water resource protection/conservation
- Adaptation to climate change effects
3.2. Empirical Data on Water Management Challenges in the Middle Draa Valley
3.2.1. Water Scarcity
“We can use water four to five times per year, it would be good. But, as you already know, in the last years, we only receive it two to three times per year if we are lucky. The problem is that we usually do not receive it in the time we need it. If we just receive it on time, in those two or three times, would be better”(Inh.07, Tagounite, 17 January 2021)
3.2.2. Unequal Access to Water Inside Oases
“Here the water shares are diversified. There are those who have water share called “Kharouba”, which equals 45 min of irrigation. There are those who have the 1/8, which equals one hour and a half. And there is the 1/4 which equals three hours. Also, half Nouba or turn equals six hours, and a whole Nouba equals 12 h” (…) “We only had water for four days, where eight water turns were distributed”(Pt. WUA Beni Ali-Fezouata, 17 July 2020)
“When there is a release of water [from the dam] only 70% irrigate while 30% cannot irrigate because there are people who keep irrigating and wasting water. In some cases, 2 h is fairly enough to irrigate a land of 0.5 hectares but the owner has 6 h of water so he irrigates and irrigates until the 6 h are over”(Gov.02, 02 March 2020)
“The water stays on each Seguia for three days or even less, for 24 h. If you get your turn on the Seguia you irrigate your land, if not, you cannot”(Pte. WUA of Ternata 10 March 2020)
3.2.3. Unequal Access to Water between Upstream and Downstream Oases
“We have our own well, almost 19 m deep. We are located far from the river, so we usually don’t benefit [with direct abstractions] from the water released from the dam” (…) “We only have to wait for this water to recharge the aquifers, another option is to wait until it rains in the mountains to also recharge the aquifers”(Inh.06, Ternata, 10 March 2020)
3.2.4. Unequal Access to Water between Farmers Inside Oases and Farmers in Irrigated Areas Outside the Oases
“For us the state, there is no problem, the problem is… for small land, companies don’t want to install an irrigation system because they say it is more difficult with small surfaces.” Interviewer: “Does this happen even if the subsidies application is accepted?” Respondent: “No, before applying the farmer has to find a company that is willing to equip his land with an irrigation system, it is here where the problem resides”(Gov.06, 09 March 2020)
3.2.5. Water-Related Tensions and Conflicts
“…for us [Tagounite, K’taoua] we want the water to be available in the months nine or at the beginning of the month ten, for example. They in Agdaz or other places, because they have a small oasis not like here that the oasis is wider and bigger and they have wells, so they do not have a problem if the water is late…”(WUA.01—Tagounite, K’taoua 06 March 2020)
“Upstream people killed us. Now we are going to harvest but their crops are still green. They are stronger than us, they have 4 or 5 representatives, and we only have 2. And even if they have a vote they win”(Inh.08—Blida, K’taoua, 13 March 2020)
“It’s true that the water requirements [by watermelon] are less compared to those of the palm tree, but this crop has not been scheduled to be cultivated. This additional water demand leads to the conflict of the overexploitation of the aquifer” (…) Interviewer: “So, the tension is now between who?” Respondent: “It’s between the farmers of Draa Valley and the farmers of the extensions. The latter defend this new crop. However, the farmers of the valley and especially of the last two oases are against it”(Gov.01, 25 February 2020)
“They [watermelon farmers in Feija] mostly say that they [ONEE] took their water. They insist on saying it is their water, which is not true. So, in those discussions, we [the government] try to explain to them that groundwater belongs to the state. And secondly, that this water is only for drinking purposes. Moreover, the rate of water consumed as drinking water is largely inferior to that for irrigation. This means that this water issue [aquifer depletion] is mostly due to agriculture”(Gov.07, 09 March 2020)
3.2.6. Salinization of Soil and Water
“Wells inside the Oasis are useless since they only have salty water. When we use it to irrigate our lands, we always regret it. The lands go dry so fast, and the white layer of salt stays concentrated in the land, keeping us from using it for days, and maybe weeks”(Inh.11, 27 February 2020, M’hamid)
3.2.7. Compartmentalization of Governmental Sectors
“According to the mission of the Ministry of Agriculture, we have to promote the investor. If all his papers and certificates are legal, we cannot not give him the subsidy: equipping the land with localized irrigation and digging boreholes. It’s not the job of the Ministry of Agriculture to solve water problems. It’s the responsibility of the Ministry of Water to find the solution” (…) “More than 90% are collective lands that are managed by the Ministry of Interior. The ministry gives certificates of land exploitation according to the rights of each tribe”(Gov.01, 25 February 2020)
“Even sometimes we dig at night illegally. One time I dug in the night after the wells I had collapsed. I dug 2 other wells of 52 m.” Interviewer: “What was the administrative procedure to dig a well?” Respondent: “They didn’t give me the permit at the time. I started digging without it because you need to give money to people as part of the procedure. In the end, I dug without the permits” (…) “Sometimes we pay bribes and sometimes we call people we know [in public administration] and move some influence or even we beg to let us work”(Inh.14, Feija, 02 December 2021)
“When they dig for water, if we stop them [water users] because they are out of law we are not providing a solution for them and it is contradictory with the aim of the administration, so we have to see and take into consideration the social side” (…) “The first sector is agriculture, which is the most valued in Morocco and generates a lot of money, and it always receive a lot of attention, more if the regulations are always evolving, and we always put the social aspect in the picture so as not to create conflicts within the country”(Gov.08, 26 July 2021)
“If we do not talk about agriculture in this area, we will have a strong migration”(Gov.01, 26 July 2021)
“There is nothing about the digging permits. If he [the farmer] has a well, he has the right to be subsidized.” Interviewer: “Even if he doesn’t have a digging permit?” “Exactly, this is the problem”(Gov.01, 25 February 2020)
“This is the contradiction between the government officers who asked for the land-use authorization when it comes to [agricultural] subsidies. This [land-use] authorization must be given by the tribal organization, who ask first the farmer to start working in the land. For this we need water. So, we need the well. The well must be with a permit to dig. And this permit comes after having the land-use authorization”(Inh.14, on 30 October 2021)
4. Discussion
4.1. Water Scarcity: A Discourse That Gives Continuity to the Construction of Large-Scale Water Infrastructures but Overlooks the Reproduction of Social Disparities
4.2. Unsustainability of Water Resources: A Problem Aggravated by Infrastructural Solutions
4.3. The Limitations That the Use of Disciplinary Approaches Impose on the Achievement of IWRM
4.4. There Are Limitations to Achieve Sustainable Development That Derive Directly from the Conceptual Inconsistencies of the Sustainable Development Paradigm Itself
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A. Analyzed Policy Documents
Year of Release | Policy Instruments | Documents |
1995 | Loi No. 10–95 relative à l’eau | Kingdom of Morocco (20 September 1995). Loi No. 10–95 relative à l’eau. Bulletin officiel No. 4325. Rabat: Kingdom of Morocco. |
2007 | National Program for Saving Water in Irrigation (PNEEI) | Arrifi E-M. (2009). L’économie et la valorisation de l’eau en irrigation au Maroc: un défi pour la durabilité de l’agriculture irriguée. In: Symposium international “Agriculture durable en région Méditerranéenne (AGDUMED)”, Rabat, Maroc, 14–16 mai 2009. |
Ref: Belghiti Mhamed (2008). Administration du Génie Rural. “Le Programme National d’Economie et de Valorisation de l’Eau en Irrigation » Presentation during Journée mondiale de l’alimentation. Rabat, 14 November 2008. Accessed on 28 October 2020 from http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/FAO-countries/Maroc/programme_national_economie_eau.pdf | ||
Ministère de l’Agriculture, de la Pèche maritime, du Développement Rural et des Eaux et Forêts–MAPDREF. (n.d.) “L’économie de l’eau”. Accessed on 11 February 2021 from http://www.agriculture.gov.ma/ | ||
2009 | National Water Strategy | Royaume du Maroc (2009). Stratégie National de l’Eau. Accessed on 18 February 2021 from http://www.environnement.gov.ma/fr/eau/112-theme/eau. |
Alaoui, M. (2013). Water sector in Morocco. Situation and perspectives. Journal of Water Resources and Ocean Science; 2(5): 108–114. | ||
2014 | National Water Plan | Direction General de l’Eau-Ministère de l’Équipement, du Transport, de la Logistique, et de l’Eau (n.d.). Politique de l’Eau. Accessed on 18 February 2021 from http://81.192.10.228/ressources-en-eau/politique-de-leau/ |
2016 | Loi No. 36–15 relative à l’eau | Kingdom of Morocco (10 August 2016). Loi No. 36–15 relative à l’eau. Tétouan, Morocco: Kingdom of Morocco. |
2020 | National Drinking Water Supply and Irrigation 2020–2027 | Direction General de l’Eau-Ministère de l’Équipement, du Transport, de la Logistique, et de l’Eau (2020). Approvisionnement en eau potable et l’irrigation 2020–2027. Retrieved on 18 February 2021 from http://81.192.10.228/ressources-en-eau/lapprovisionnement-en-eau-potable-et-lirrigation/ |
2020 | Climate change adaptation policies for the water and agriculture sectors | Royaume du Maroc-Ministère de l’Economie, des Finances et de la Réforme de l’Administration; Ministère de l’Equipement, du Transport, de la Logistique et de L’eau Direction de la Recherche et de la Planification de l’Eau (2020). “Le Maroc à l’épreuve du changement climatique: situation, impacts et politiques de réponse dans les secteurs de l’eau et de l’agriculture”. DEPF Policy Brief, DECEMBRE 2020 I N° 18 Direction des Etudes et des Prévisions Financières |
Appendix B. Codebook—Deductive Coding
- Unit of coding: sentence or paragraph depending on the content.
- Each sentence/paragraph must be coded with only one sub-code.
- In case of doubt as to which sub-codes to use, follow the framing of the text: is the segment presented as a goal, achievement, or problem?
Code | Sub-Code | When to Use the Code |
Policy Issue | Policy problem | If the segment refers to a public problem, undesirable situations, or reference to negative impacts the policy aims to solve, mitigate, or address. |
Policy goals | If the segment refers to government objectives, pursued achievements, or a situation that is sought as a result of government intervention. | |
Policy Solution | If the segment mentions concrete measures to solve, address, or change policy problems. | |
Institutional | If the segment refers to institutional processes, mobilization or changing of rules, and organizational development as a means to achieving policy goals or implementing policy solutions. | |
Technological/infrastructural | If the segment refers to interventions based on technology or infrastructure as a means to achieving policy goals or implementing policy solutions. | |
Technical/knowledge | If the segment refers to the use, support, or improvement of knowledge as a means to achieving policy goals or implementing policy solutions. | |
Financial/economic | If the segment refers to the use of economic or financial mechanisms (subsidies, taxes, pricing, etc.) as a means to achieving policy goals or implementing policy solutions. |
Appendix C. Exploratory Interviews with Governmental Institutions
Topics | Questions |
Role of the institutional area of the interviewee, and role of the interviewee in this institution: The idea is to understand who we are talking to in terms of position and role in the organization, and what kind of information he/she can provide us. This can also be important for later understanding the position and interests of the organization in relation to the topics addressed in our research. |
|
What are the key regulatory and policy frameworks about water and land access, use, and distribution? | What are the documents we should read to have a good understanding of the regulatory framework in terms of water and land access, use, and distribution? |
Can you facilitate us access to these documents? | |
Overview of the current situation of access, use, and distribution of land and water in the upper and middle part of the catchment. | What are the main problems related to land and water in the Draa Catchment? (Distinguish between the problems in the area of the Oases and the urban area in the upper and middle part of the catchment, particularly downstream Zagora). |
Conflicts and tensions in the catchment | What are the areas with major incidence of conflicts in the catchment? |
What are these conflicts about? (actors involved; what these actors are fighting for?) | |
What do you think are the causes of these conflicts? | |
Is this institution involved in any of these conflicts? How? Is intervening in these conflicts part of the competence of this governmental institution? | |
Actor mapping | Can you give us the contact information of other people that can help us to better understand these topics? |
Appendix D. Interview Guide for Water Users
- Personal information
- 1.
- Name
- 2.
- Age
- 3.
- Household composition
- 4.
- Tell us please, where are you from? Are you from this area?
- Current livelihoods
- 5.
- What do you do for a living?
- 6.
- What are you mostly concerned about?
- General changes
- 7.
- What changes have you noticed in relation to water in this area during the past 25 years?
- 8.
- How have these changes affected your life and the lives of the local inhabitants?
- 9.
- What are the causes of these changes?
- 10.
- Explore the connection between the changes in resource availability and access with historical, political, economic, and social processes happening in the country.
References
- Woodhouse, P.; Muller, M. Water governance: An historical perspective on current debates. World Dev. 2017, 92, 225–241. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mehta, L.; Movik, S.; Bolding, A.; Derman, B.; Manzungu, E. Introduction to the special issue—Flows and practices: The politics of integrated water resources management (IWRM) in Southern Africa. Water Altern. 2016, 9, 389–411. [Google Scholar]
- Allan, T. IWRM/IWRAM: A New Sanctioned Discourse? Occasional Paper; University of London: London, UK, 2003; p. 50. [Google Scholar]
- Allouche, J. The birth and spread of IWRM—A case study of global policy diffusion and translation. Water Altern. 2016, 9, 412–433. [Google Scholar]
- Biswas, A. Integrated water resources management: A reassessment. Water Int. 2004, 29, 248–256. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Molle, F. Nirvana concepts, narratives and policy models: Insight from the water sector. Water Altern. 2008, 1, 131–156. [Google Scholar]
- Bolding, A.; Mollinga, P.P.; Zwarteveen, M. Interdisciplinarity in research on integrated water resource management: Pitfalls and challenges. In Proceedings of the Unesco-Wotro International Working Conference on ‘Water for Society’, Delft, The Netherlands, 8–10 November 2000. [Google Scholar]
- Pahl-Wostl, C. Water Governance in the Face of Global Change: From Understanding to Transformation; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2015. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pahl-Wostl, C. The role of governance modes and meta-governance in the transformation towards sustainable water governance. Environ. Sci. Policy 2019, 91, 6–16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Abson, D.J.; Fischer, J.; Leventon, J.; Newig, J.; Schomerus, T.; Vilsmaier, U.; von Wehrden, H.; Abernethy, P.; Ives, C.D.; Jager, N.W.; et al. Leverage points for sustainability transformation. Ambio 2017, 46, 30–39. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bhaduri, A.; Bogardi, J.; Siddiqi, A.; Voigt, H.; Vörösmarty, C.; Pahl-Wostl, C.; Bunn, S.E.; Shrivastava, P.; Lawford, R.; Foster, S.; et al. Achieving sustainable development goals from a water perspective. Front. Environ. Sci. 2016, 4, 64. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Royaume du Maroc—Ministre de l’Agriculture, de la Pêche Maritime, du Développement Rural et des Eaux et Forêts (MAPMDREF). Strategie National de l’Eau. Rabat, Morocco, 2009. Available online: www.environnement.gov.ma/fr/eau/112-theme/eau (accessed on 18 February 2021).
- Royaume du Maroc—Ministère de l’Economie, des Finances et de la Réforme de l’Administration—MEFRA; Ministère de l’Equipement, du Transport, de la Logistique et de l’Eau—METLE. Le Maroc à l’épreuve du changement climatique: Situation, impacts et politiques de réponse dans les secteurs de l’eau et de l’agriculture. DEPF Policy Brief 2020, 18, 32. [Google Scholar]
- Royaume du Maroc. Loi n° 10–95 Relative à l’Eau; Bulletin Officiel n° 4325; 20 September; Royaume du Maroc: Rabat, Morocco, 1995.
- Kadiri, Z.; Mahdi, M. Eau: Une coordination à plusieurs cycles. CESEM Econ. 2013, 16, 45–51. [Google Scholar]
- Swearingen, W. Terre, politique et pouvoir au Maroc. In Revue de l’Occident Musulman et de la Méditerranée; Monde Arabe: La Société, la Terre, le Pouvoir; Persée: Lyon, France, 1987; Volume 45, pp. 41–54. [Google Scholar]
- Molle, F.; Tanouti, O.; Faysse, N. Chapter 3: Morocco. In Irrigation in the Mediterranean; Technologies, Institutions and Policies; Molle, F., Sanchis-Ibor, C., Avellà-Reus, L., Eds.; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2019; Volume 22, pp. 51–88. [Google Scholar]
- El Gueddari, A.; Arrifi, M. L’agriculture Irriguée au Maroc Face à la Rareté des Ressources en Eau. In UNESCO, L’Etat des Ressources en eau au Maghreb en 2009; UNESCO: Rabat, Morocco, 2009. [Google Scholar]
- Hssaisoune, M.; Bouchaou, L.; Sifeddine, A.; Bouimetarhan, I.; Chehbouni, A. Moroccan groundwater resources and evolution with global climate changes. Geosciences 2020, 10, 81. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Benouniche, M.; Kuper, M.; Hammani, A.; Boesveld, H. Making the user visible: Analysing irrigation practices and farmers’ logic to explain actual drip irrigation performance. Irrig. Sci. 2014, 32, 405–420. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kuper, M.; Faysse, N.; Hammani, A.; Hartani, T.; Marlet, S.; Hamamouche, M.F.; Ameur, F. Liberation or Anarchy? The Janus Nature of Groundwater use on North Africa’s New Irrigation Frontiers. In Integrated Groundwater Management Concepts, Approaches and Challenges; Jakeman, A.J., Barreteau, O., Hunt, R.J., Rinaudo, J.D., Ross, A., Eds.; Springer Nature: Cham, Switzerland, 2016; pp. 583–615. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Molle, F. Conflicting Policies: Agricultural Intensification vs. Water Conservation in Morocco; G-EAU Working Paper/Rapport de Recherche No.1.; G-Eau: Montpellier, France, 2017. [Google Scholar]
- Molle, F.; Tanouti, O. La micro-irrigation et les ressources en eau au Maroc: Un coûteux malentendu. Altern. Rural. 2017, 5, 18. [Google Scholar]
- Kuper, M.; Hammani, A.; Chohin, A.; Garin, P.; Saaf, M. When groundwater takes over: Linking 40 years of agricultural and groundwater dynamics in a large-scale irrigation schem in Morocco. Irrig. Drain. 2012, 61, 45–53. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kuper, M.; Amichi, H.; Mayaux, P.-L. Groundwater use in North Africa as a cautionarytale for climate change adaptation. Water Int. 2017, 42, 725–740. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Royaume du Maroc—Haut Commissariat au Plan. Recensement Général de la Population et de l’Habitat 2014. Population Légale des Régions, Provinces, Préfectures, Municipalités, Arrondissements et Communes du Royaume d’après les résultat du RGPH 2014. Available online: https://rgph2014.hcp.ma/downloads/Resultats-RGPH-2014_t18649.html (accessed on 12 July 2022).
- Klose, S. Regional Hydrogeology and Groundwater Budget Modeling in the Arid Middle Drâa Catchment (South-Morocco). Ph.D. Thesis, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn, Bonn, Germany, 12 November 2012. [Google Scholar]
- Moumane, A.; Ezzahra El Ghazali, F.; Al Karkouri, J.; Delorme, J.; Batchi, M.; Chafiki, D.; Karmaoui, A. Monitoring spatiotemporal variation of groundwater level and salinity under land use change using integrated field measurements, GIS, geostatistical, and remote-sensing approach: Case study of the Feija aquifer, Middle Draa watershed, Moroccan Sahara. Environ. Monit. Assess. 2021, 193, 769. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Karmaoui, A.; Ifaadassan, I.; Messouli, M.; Yacoubi Khebiza, M. Sustainability of the Moroccan Oasean system (Case study: Middle Draa Valley). Glob. J. Technol. Optim. 2015, 6, 1. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Heidecke, C.; Heckelei, T. Impacts of changing water inflow distributions on irrigation and farm income along the Draa River in Morocco. Agric. Econ. 2010, 41, 135–149. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Belghiti, M. Le Programme National d’Economie et de Valorisation de l’Eau en Irrigation. Presentation during Journée mondiale de l’alimentation. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: Rabat, 14 Novembre, 2008. Available online: http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/FAO-countries/Maroc/programme_national_economie_eau.pdf (accessed on 28 October 2020).
- Arrifi, E.-M.; Ingénieru Principal du Génie Rural; Chef de Service à l’Administration du Génie Rural, Ministère de l’Agriculture et de la Peche Maritime. L’économie et la valorisation de l’eau en irrigation au Maroc: Un défi pour la durabilité de l’agriculture irriguée. In Proceedings of the Sympusium International Agriculture durable en Région Méditerranéenne (AGDUMED), Rabat, Morocco, 14 May 2009; pp. 48–54. [Google Scholar]
- Alaoui, M. Water sector in Morocco: Situation and perspectives. J. Water Resour. Ocean Sci. 2013, 2, 108–114. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Creswell, J. Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design. Choosing among Five Approaches, 2nd ed.; Sage: Los Angeles, CA, USA, 2007; p. 393. [Google Scholar]
- Amosa, M. Policy Analysis and Engagement Toolkit. A Guide for Pacific Non-Government Organizations in the Fisheries Sector; WWF: Suva, Fiji, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Hanberger, A. What is the policy problem? Methodological challenges in policy evaluation. Evaluation 2001, 7, 45–62. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Royaume du Maroc—Ministère de l’Agriculture, de la Pêche Maritime, du Développement Rural et des Eaux et Forêts (MAPMDREF)—Département de l’Agriculture. (n.d.). L’économie de l’eau”. Available online: http://www.agriculture.gov.ma/ (accessed on 11 February 2021).
- Ait Lamqadem, A.; Saber, H.; Pradhan, B. Long term monitoring of transformation from pastoral to agricultural land use using time series landsat data in the Feija Basin (Southeast Morocco). Earth Syst. Environ. 2019, 3, 525–538. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Royaume du Maroc—Agence DU Bassin Hydraulique de Draa—Oued Noun. Etude d’elaboration du Contrat de Nappe de Feija: Mission 2: Etat des lieux, tendance de l’évolution future et identification (n.d.). Unpublished work.
- Kelly, E.; Shields, K.F.; Cronk, R.; Lee, K.; Behnke, N.; Klug, T.; Bartram, J. Seasonality, water use and community management of water systems in rural settings: Qualitative evidence from Ghana, Kenya, and Zambia. Sci. Total Environ. 2018, 628, 715–721. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Chiahemba Aondoakaa, S.; Jewitt, S. Effects of seasonality on access to improved water in Benue State, Nigeria. Environ. Monit. Assess. 2022, 194, 40. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Akinyemi, P.A.; Afolabi, O.T.; Aluko, O. The effects of seasonal variations on household water security and burden of diarrheal diseases among under 5 children in an urban community, Southwest Nigeria. BMC Public Health 2022, 22, 1354. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zhang, H.; Xu, L.; Huang, T.; Yan, M.; Liu, K.; Miao, Y.; He, H.; Li, S.; Sekar, R. Combined effects of seasonality and stagnation on tap water quality: Changes in chemical parameters, metabolic activity and co-existence in bacterial community. J. Hazard. Mater. 2021, 403, 124018. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Silva-Novoa, L.M.; Sanne Kemerink-Seyoum, J.; Waiswa, D.B.; Paul, R. Caught in the middle? Access to water in the rural to urban transformation of Bushenyi-Ishaka municipality, Uganda. Water Policy 2020, 22, 4. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mehta, L. Whose scarcity? Whose property? The case of water in western India. Land Use Policy 2007, 24, 654–663. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Luks, F. Deconstructing Economic Interpretations of Sustainable Development: Limits, Scarcity and Abundance. In The Limits to Scarcity: Contesting the Politics of Allocation; Mehta, L., Ed.; Earthscan: London, UK, 2010. [Google Scholar]
- WEF. Water Security Towards a Values-Based Approach. In Global Agenda Council on Water Security; World Economic Forum: Cologny, Switzerland, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- Liermann, C.; Nilsson, C.; Robertson, J.; Ng, R. Implications of dam obstruction for global freshwater fish diversity. Bioscience 2012, 62, 539–548. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Maeck, A.; DelSontro, T.; McGinnis, D.; Fischer, H.; Flury, S.; Schmidt, M.; Fietzek, P.; Lorke, A. Sediment trapping by dams creates methane emission hot spots. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2013, 47, 8130–8137. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zarfl, C.; Lumsdon, A.; Berlekamp, J. A global boom in hydropower dam construction. Aquat. Sci. 2015, 77, 161–170. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Di Baldassarre, G.; Sivapalan, M.; Rusca, M.; Cudennec, C.; Garcia, M.; Kreibich, H. Sociohydrology: Scientific challenges in addressing the sustainable development goals. Water Resour. Res. 2019, 55, 6327–6355. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ward, P.J. The need to integrate flood and drought disaster risk reduction strategies. Water Secur. 2020, 11, 100070. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Garcia, M.; Ridolfib, E.; Di Baldassarre, G. The interplay between reservoir storage and operating rules under evolving conditions. J. Hydrol. 2020, 590, 125270. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Johannsen, I.; Hengst, J.; Goll, A.; Höllermann, B. Future of water supply and demand in the middle Drâa Valley, Morocco, under climate and land use change. Water 2016, 8, 313. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Karmaoui, A.; Messouli, M.; Yacoubi Khebiza, M.; Ifaadassan, I. Environmental vulnerability to climate change and anthropogenic impacts in Dryland, (pilot study: Middle Draa Valley, South Morocco). Earth Sci. Clim. Change 2014, S11, 1. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Minucci, G.; Karmaoui, A. Chapter 11. Exploring the water-food-energy and climate nexus: Insights from the Moroccan Draa Valley. In Peri-Urban Areas and Food-Energy-Water Nexus; Colucci, A., Magoni, M., Menoni, S., Eds.; Springer International: Cham, Switzerland, 2017; pp. 89–97. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jevons, W.S. The Coal Question, 2nd ed.; Macmillan and Company: London, UK, 1866. [Google Scholar]
- Blake, A. Jevons’ paradox. Ecol. Econ. 2005, 54, 9–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Font Vivanco, D.; McDowall, W.; Freire-González, J.; Kemp, R.; van der Voet, E. The foundations of the environmental rebound effect and its contribution towards a general framework. Ecol. Econ. 2016, 125, 60–69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lange, S.; Kern, F.; Peuckert, J.; Santarius, T. The Jevons paradox unravelled: A multi-level typology of rebound effects and mechanisms. Energy Res. Soc. Sci. 2021, 74, 1–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Van der Kooij, S.; Kuper, M.; Zwarteveen, M.Z.; de Fraiture, C.M.S. A user-centred approach to irrigation performance: Drip irrigation in the Khrichfa area, Morocco. Water Int. 2017, 42, 794–809. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Venot, J.-P.; Zwarteveen, M.; Kuper, M.; Boesveld, H.; Bossenbroek, L.; van der Kooij, S.; Wanvoeke, J.; Benouniche, M.; Errahj, M.; de Fraiture, C.; et al. Beyond the promises of technology: A review of the discourses and actors who make drip irrigation. Irrig. Drain. 2014, 63, 186–194. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Birkenholtz, T. Assessing India’s drip-irrigation boom: Efficiency. Water Int. 2017, 42, 663–677. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Berbel, J.; Pedraza, V.; Giannoccaro, G. The trajectory towards basin closure of a European river: Guadalquivir. Int. J. River Basin Manag. 2013, 11, 111–119. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Batchelor, C.; Reddy, V.R.; Linstead, C.; Dhar, M.; Roy, S.; May, R. Do water-saving technologies improve environmental flows? J. Hydrol. 2014, 518, 140–149. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Perry, C. Does Improved Irrigation Technology Save Water? A Review of the Evidence. In Discussion Paper on Irrigation and Sustainable Water Resources Management in the Near East and North Africa; FAO, Regional Office for Near East and North Africa: Cairo, Egypt, 2017; p. 42. [Google Scholar]
- Hediger, W. Weak and strong sustainability, environmental conservation and economic growth. Nat. Resour. Model. 2006, 19, 359–394. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Boelens, R.; Vos, J. The danger of naturalizing water policy concepts: Water productivity and efficiency discourses from field irrigation to virtual water trade. Agric. Water Manag. 2012, 108, 16–26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Type of Interviewees | No. of Interviewees | Male | Female |
---|---|---|---|
Government | 10 | 9 | 1 |
Irrigation water user association | 4 | 4 | 0 |
Inhabitants | 17 | 13 | 4 |
Total | 31 | 26 | 5 |
Ultimate goals | ||
---|---|---|
Meet national water needs to enable the socio-economic development of the country. | ||
Ensure sustainability of the irrigation sector. | ||
Improve rural living conditions. | ||
Policy problems | Policy goals | Policy solutions |
Water scarcity | Increase water supply Increase water value Water saving/demand management Adaptation to climate change effects | WATER SAVING Financial solutions 1. Financial incentives for adopting water-saving techniques (subsidies, guarantee funds, mutuality, credits, etc.). 2. Irrigation water tariff readjustment plan. 3. Macroeconomic levers (exchange rates, interest rates, tariffs and taxation). Infrastructural solutions 1. Program to rehabilitate and modernise irrigation and potable water infrastructure. 2. Development of large-scale localised irrigation (555,000 ha by 2020). Technical/knowledge solutions 1. Strengthen irrigation system management through computerised tools. 2. Proximity council for improving design of water-saving irrigation systems. Institutional solutions 1. Private company-type accounting and financial system to improve efficiency of ORMVAs. 2. Long-term regionalized action plan for the implementation of participatory irrigation management. 3. Institutional communication plan and campaign for water-use behavioural change. 4. Water saving contracts to stop overexploited aquifers. INCREASE WATER VALUE Technical/knowledge solutions 1. Research into more productive and water-efficient cropping systems (conversion to value-adding techniques and crops). 2. Advice on the design of irrigation systems and support to improve productivity and valuation. Institutional solutions 1. Developing downstream agriculture through partnership and “contractualisation” with the agroindustry. 2. Institutional reform and public-private partnerships to manage collective irrigation schemes. Infrastructural solutions 1. Equipment and construction of conveyance infrastructure to utilise the water resources mobilised by dams. 2. Promote drip-irrigation to increase productivity per m3 and, consequently, the water value. DEVELOPMENT OF WATER SUPPLY Infrastructural solutions 1. Large dam building: (27.3 billion m3) and small dams for local development. 2. Three new seawater desalination plants. 3. Equipment and adductions for securing drinking water supply. 4. Prospecting for and releasing groundwater resources to strengthen drinking water supply, livestock watering and irrigation. |
Uneven water distribution in time and space | ||
Changing conditions in water availability and demand | ||
Water waste | ||
Water allocation among competing activities | ||
Climate change | ||
Food security | ||
Overexploitation and pollution of water resources | Water resources protection/conservation | RESOURCE PROTECTION Infrastructural solutions 1. Control of fertiliser leaching (localised irrigation?). 2. Purification and recycling of effluents. Institutional solutions 3. Water saving contracts for overexploited aquifers. 4. Enforcing legal regulation to control pollutant activities and groundwater abstractions. |
Silting of dam reservoirs and loss of storage capacity |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Silva-Novoa Sánchez, L.M.; Bossenbroek, L.; Schilling, J.; Berger, E. Governance and Sustainability Challenges in the Water Policy of Morocco 1995–2020: Insights from the Middle Draa Valley. Water 2022, 14, 2932. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14182932
Silva-Novoa Sánchez LM, Bossenbroek L, Schilling J, Berger E. Governance and Sustainability Challenges in the Water Policy of Morocco 1995–2020: Insights from the Middle Draa Valley. Water. 2022; 14(18):2932. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14182932
Chicago/Turabian StyleSilva-Novoa Sánchez, Luis Miguel, Lisa Bossenbroek, Janpeter Schilling, and Elisabeth Berger. 2022. "Governance and Sustainability Challenges in the Water Policy of Morocco 1995–2020: Insights from the Middle Draa Valley" Water 14, no. 18: 2932. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14182932