On the Shift of Glacier Equilibrium Line Altitude (ELA) under the Changing Climate
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Overview of the ELA Variations
2.1. The Longest Observation of the ELA
2.2. ELA Changes on Observed Glaciers World Over
3. The Data Sources and Their Treatment
3.1. Publications and On-Line Accessible Data Files
3.2. Examination and Construction of the ELA Timeseries
4. The Climatology of the Equilibrium Line Shift
4.1. Search for the Universal Relationship between the ELA Shift and Climate Change
4.2. Significance of Equation (1), Physical Content of c, and the Situation of Outliers
5. Results and Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
- WGMS-FoG-2021-05-E-MASS-BALANCE_OVERVIEW, and WGMS-FoG-2021-05-EE-MASS-BALANCE, World Glacier Monitoring Service (WGMS), Zurich
- Glaciological Investigations in Norway (1963-2020), Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Directorate
- Gletscherberichte (later under Die Gletscher der Schweizer Alpen, and further, Schnee, Gletscher und Permafrost) (1880-2020), Glacier Commission, Swiss Academy of Natural Sciences
- Baker, E. H., McNeil, C. J., Sass, L. C., Peitzsch, E. H., Whorton, E. N., Florentine, C. E., Clark, A. M., Miller, Z. S., Fagre, D. B., and O’Neel, S., 2018, USGS Benchmark Glacier Mass Balance and Project Data: U.S. Geological Survey data release, https://doi.org/10.5066/F7BG2N8R.
- McNeil, C. J., Sass, L. C., Florentine, C. E., Baker, E. H., Peitzsch, E. H., Whorton, E. N., Miller, Z. S., Fagre, D. B., Clark, A. M., and O’Neel, S., 2016, Glacier-Wide Mass Balance and Compiled Data Inputs: USGS Benchmark Glaciers: U.S. Geological Survey data release, https://doi.org/10.5066/F7HD7SRF.
- ERA5 reanalysis
- CRUTEM (Climate Research Unit, University of East Anglia)
- GHCN (Global Historical Climatology Network). For the Alpine region
- HISTALP (Historial Instrumental Climatological Surface Time Series of the Greater Alpine Region)
- National Meteorological and Geophysical Service of Austria (Zentral Anstalt für Meteorologie und Geodynamik)
- Swiss Federal Office for Meteorology and Climatology (MeteoSwiss)
- German Weather Service
- Canadian Meteorological Service
- Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute
- Norwegian Meteorological Institute
- Bergen radiation reports, Geophysical Institute, University of Bergen
- WRDC (World Radiation Data Centre, Sankt Petersburg)
- GEBA (Global Energy Balance Archive, ETH, Zurich)
- BSRN (Baseline Surface Radiation Network, AWI, Bremerhaven)
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Year | Bw (mm) | Bs (mm) | Bn (mm) | Off Glacier | Reported | With All Data | Excluding Above | Only Negative |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ELA m a.s.l. | glacier ELA | Bn years | ||||||
1953 | −600 | |||||||
1955 | 300 | |||||||
1956 | 200 | |||||||
1957 | −200 | |||||||
1958 | −3300 | |||||||
1959 | 3290 | −2560 | 730 | |||||
1960 | 2220 | −2690 | −470 | 1880 | ||||
1961 | 2410 | −3480 | −1070 | 1950 | ||||
1962 | 2510 | −2280 | 230 | 1860 | ||||
1963 | 2240 | −3510 | −1270 | 2040 | ||||
1964 | 3260 | −2030 | 1230 | 1795 | ||||
1965 | 3490 | −3630 | −140 | 1880 | ||||
1966 | 2480 | −3480 | −1000 | 2380 | 2009 | 2043 | 2034 | |
1967 | 3300 | −3900 | −600 | 1870 | ||||
1968 | 3010 | −2970 | 40 | 2080 | ||||
1969 | 3180 | −3880 | −700 | 1910 | ||||
1970 | 2420 | −3590 | −1170 | 2050 | ||||
1971 | 3520 | −2890 | 630 | 1820 | ||||
1972 | 4280 | −2820 | 1460 | 1770 | ||||
1973 | 2220 | −3230 | −1010 | 2070 | ||||
1974 | 3660 | −2610 | 1050 | 1850 | ||||
1975 | 3070 | −3090 | −20 | 1800 | ||||
1976 | 3540 | −2560 | 980 | 1825 | ||||
1977 | 1580 | −2850 | −1270 | > | 2250 | 2036 | 2076 | 2076 |
1978 | 2500 | −2850 | −350 | 1925 | ||||
1979 | 2190 | −3720 | −1530 | 2225 | ||||
1980 | 1840 | −2830 | −990 | > | 2150 | 2008 | 2041 | 2033 |
1981 | 2290 | −3100 | −810 | 1990 | 2019 | 2005 | ||
1982 | 3120 | −3010 | 110 | 1896 | 1905 | 1862 | ||
1983 | 1920 | −2660 | −740 | 1982 | 2010 | 1994 | ||
1984 | 2390 | −2240 | 150 | 1892 | 1900 | 1856 | ||
1985 | 2190 | −3360 | −1170 | 2026 | 2064 | 2061 | ||
1986 | 2480 | −3340 | −860 | 1995 | ||||
1987 | 1960 | −4050 | −2090 | 2189 | ||||
1988 | 2210 | −3400 | −1190 | 2028 | 2066 | 2064 | ||
1989 | 2400 | −3590 | −1190 | 2024 | ||||
1990 | 2530 | −2880 | −350 | 1889 | ||||
1991 | 3650 | −4020 | −370 | 1883 | ||||
1992 | 1850 | −4050 | −2200 | 2080 | ||||
1993 | 1880 | −2920 | −1040 | 1991 | ||||
1994 | 2350 | −4120 | −1770 | > | 2244 | 2087 | 2138 | 2153 |
1995 | 2980 | −4000 | −1020 | 1997 | ||||
1996 | 2860 | −2970 | −110 | 1868 | ||||
1997 | 3470 | −3140 | 330 | 1835 | ||||
1998 | 3070 | −4950 | −1880 | > | 2137 | 2098 | 2152 | 2170 |
1999 | 4040 | −2480 | 1560 | 1847 | ||||
2000 | 3110 | −2580 | 530 | 1840 | ||||
2001 | 1760 | −2550 | −790 | 1966 | ||||
2002 | 3990 | −3400 | 590 | 1856 | ||||
2003 | 2460 | −4690 | −2230 | > | 2125 | 2133 | 2195 | 2225 |
2004 | 2060 | −3660 | −1600 | 2108 | ||||
2005 | 2090 | −4470 | −2380 | > | 2317 | 2149 | 2214 | 2248 |
2006 | 2600 | −3830 | −1230 | > | 2754 | 2032 | 2071 | 2070 |
2007 | 3490 | −3470 | 20 | 1869 | ||||
2008 | 3280 | −3120 | 160 | 1850 | ||||
2009 | 2730 | −4380 | −1650 | > | 2331 | 2075 | 2123 | 2135 |
2010 | 2700 | −2930 | −230 | 1907 | ||||
2011 | 3550 | −2150 | 1400 | 1794 | ||||
2012 | 3530 | −3430 | 100 | 1854 | ||||
2013 | 3280 | −3940 | −660 | 1915 | ||||
2014 | 3710 | −3840 | −130 | 1926 | ||||
2015 | 2730 | −5950 | −3220 | 2174 | ||||
2016 | 3410 | −4170 | −760 | 1963 | ||||
2017 | 3960 | −4570 | −610 | 1941 | ||||
2018 | 3800 | −4480 | −680 | 2040 | ||||
2019 | 2440 | −4490 | −2050 | > | 3264 | 2115 | 2173 | 2197 |
2020 | 3210 | −3270 | −60 | 1885 |
Glacier | Latitude | Longitude | Mean ELA m a.s.l. | Observed Period | Used Period | ELA Change m/a | Temp Change K/Decade | Bw Change mm w.e./a | Comments | Meteorol. Stations Used |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Canadian Arctic | ||||||||||
White Glacier | 79.50 | −90.97 | 1066 | 1960–2020 | 1979–2018 | 6.7 | 0.51 | 0.42 | Bw precipitation Eureka | Eureka |
Devon Ice Cap NW | 75.25 | −82.00 | 1154 | 1961–2018 | 1979–2018 | 8.2 | 0.40 | 0.51 | Resolute | |
Greenland | ||||||||||
Mittivakkat | 65.70 | −37.80 | 750 | 1996–2019 | 1996–2018 | 7.6 | 0.52 | −0.4 | Angmagssalik | |
Iceland | ||||||||||
Hofsjokull E | 64.48 | −15.57 | 1228 | 1989–2020 | 1989–2018 | 1.1 | 0.08 | −10.0 | Bergstsdir, Lambavatn | |
Svalbard | ||||||||||
Austre Breggerbreen | 78.88 | 11.83 | 432 | 1967–2017 | 1979–2017 | 2.1 | 0.32 | −5.4 | Ny-Alesund | |
Midtre Lovenbreen | 78.88 | 12.07 | 407 | 1968–2017 | 1979–2017 | 1.7 | 0.34 | −5.0 | Ny-Alesund | |
Kongsvegen | 78.80 | 12.98 | 547 | 1996–2020 | 1987–2018 | 2.2 | 0.36 | −8.9 | Ny-Alesund | |
Hansbreen | 77.08 | 15.67 | 355 | 1987–2019 | 1989–2018 | −0.05 | 0.19 | 1.3 | Too short ELA | Barentsburg |
Alaska | ||||||||||
Gulkana Glacier | 63.30 | −145.42 | 1774 | 1966–2020 | 1979–2018 | 4.2 | 0.17 | −7.1 | ||
Wolverine Glacier | 60.40 | −148.90 | 1172 | 1966–2020 | 1979–2018 | 3.5 | 0.16 | −3.8 | ||
Taku | 58.55 | −134.13 | 1006 | 1946–2016 | 1979–2018 | 7.6 | 0.09 | −6.2 | ||
Lemon Creek Glacier | 58.38 | −134.23 | 1066 | 1953–2020 | 1979–2018 | 9.8 | 0.05 | −21.8 | Bw only after 98 | |
N. American Cordillera | ||||||||||
Peyto Glacier | 51.67 | −116.55 | 2724 | 1966–2018 | 1979–2018 | 4.8 | 0.21 | −3.2 | Tatlayoko Lake | |
Place Glacier | 50.27 | −122.60 | 2257 | 1965–2019 | 1979–2018 | 0.1 | −0.20 | −1.0 | Bannf | |
Helm Glacier | 49.97 | −123.00 | 2082 | 1976–2019 | 1979–2018 | 0.8 | −0.02 | −1.0 | Banff | |
South Cascade | 48.75 | −121.05 | 1954 | 1960–2020 | 1979–2018 | −2.5 | −0.17 | 10.3 | Winthrop, Vancouver | |
Scandinavia | ||||||||||
Langfjordjøkelen | 70.128 | 21.735 | 1062 | 1989–2019 | 1989–2018 | 8.4 | 0.35 | −21.3 | Nordstraum I, Kvaenangen | |
Ruikojietna | 68.08 | 18.05 | 1408 | 1986–2019 | 1986–2018 | 3.6 | 0.34 | −14.5 | Tromso-Langnes | |
Marmaglaciären | 68.08 | 18.68 | 1616 | 1990–2019 | 1990–2018 | 2.2 | 0.23 | −7.3 | Too short | Tromso-Langnes, Andoya |
Rabots Glacier | 67.91 | 18.5 | 1451 | 1982–2019 | 1982–2018 | 3.5 | 0.40 | −11.0 | Kiruna Fly | |
Storglaciären | 67.90 | 18.57 | 1489 | 1946–2020 | 1979–2018 | 1.8 | 0.37 | −6.1 | Kiruna Fly | |
Engabreen | 66.65 | 13.85 | 1114 | 1970–2019 | 1979–2018 | 2.4 | 0.322 | 0.4 | Glomfjord | |
Austdalsbreen | 61.82 | 7.35 | 1506 | 1988–2019 | 1988–2018 | 8.9 | 0.29 | −17.9 | Abjorsbraten | |
Alfotbreen | 61.75 | 5.65 | 1168 | 1963–2019 | 1979–2018 | 4.5 | 0.31 | −8.7 | Sognefjellhytta | |
Hansebreen | 61.75 | 5.68 | 1194 | 1986–2019 | 1986–2018 | 3.9 | 0.37 | −3.7 | Sognefjellhytta | |
Nigårdsbreen | 61.72 | 7.13 | 1510 | 1958–2019 | 1979–2018 | 0.4 | 0.37 | 6.6 | Sognefjellhytta | |
Gråsubreen | 61.65 | 8.60 | 2163 | 1958–2019 | 1979–2018 | 4 | 0.29 | −6.1 | Drevsjo | |
Hellstungubreen | 61.57 | 8.43 | 1932 | 1963–2019 | 1979–2018 | 4.2 | 0.29 | −5.7 | Drevsjo | |
Storbreen | 61.57 | 8.13 | 1785 | 1949–2019 | 1979–2018 | 3.7 | 0.27 | −7.4 | Drevsjo | |
Hardangerjökulen | 60.55 | 7.37 | 1671 | 1963–2019 | 1979–2018 | 2.6 | 0.29 | −5.3 | Mosstrand II | |
Alps | ||||||||||
Vernagtferner | 46.87 | 10.82 | 3144 | 1965–2020 | 1979–2018 | 2.5 | 0.45 | −6.2 | Sonnblick, Säntis | |
Claridenfirn | 46.85 | 8.90 | 2771 | 1915–2018 | 1979–2018 | 4.2 | 0.38 | −2.2 | Säntis, Weissfluejoch | |
Silvretta | 46.85 | 10.08 | 2794 | 1920–2018 | 1979–2018 | 5.6 | 0.57 | 0.8 | Weisfluejoch | |
Hintereisferner | 46.80 | 10.77 | 3157 | 1953–2020 | 1979–2018 | 8.0 | 0.52 | 10.3 | Bw change for 1993–2018 | |
Fontana Bianca | 46.48 | 10.77 | 3399 | 1982–2017 | 1982–2017 | 4.2 | 0.57 | 2.0 | Sonnblick, Säntis | |
Griesgletscher | 46.43 | 8.33 | 3004 | 1962–2018 | 1979–2018 | 6.8 | 0.59 | 13.4 | Jungfraujoch, St. Bernardo | |
Basodino | 46.42 | 8.48 | 2985 | 1992–2016 | 1992–2018 | 9.8 | 0.57 | −0.2 | Jungfraujoch | |
Allalingletscher | 46.05 | 7.93 | 3306 | 1956–2018 | 1979–2018 | 4.9 | 0.57 | −8.1 | Jungfraujoch, Locarno-Monti | |
Gietro | 46.00 | 7.38 | 3227 | 1967–2018 | 1979–2018 | 4.1 | 0.25 | −4.2 | Jungfraujoch, Locarno-Monti | |
Caucasus | ||||||||||
Garabashi | 43.3 | 42.47 | 3853 | 1984–2019 | 1984–2018 | 6 | 0.69 | 3.3 | Shadzhatmaz | |
Tienshan, Altai | ||||||||||
Leviy Aktru | 50.08 | 87.69 | 3195 | 1977–2012 | 1979–2012 | 5.0 | 0.35 | −13.2 | Ust-Koksa | |
Maliy Aktru | 50.05 | 87.75 | 3178 | 1962–2012 | 1979–2012 | 4.0 | 0.35 | −10.8 | Ust-Koksa | |
No. 1 Glacier Urumqi | 43.12 | 86.82 | 4068 | 1959–2020 | 1979–2018 | 3.8 | 0.50 | 3.1 | Daxigou, CN | |
Tsentr.Tuyuksuyskiy | 43.05 | 77.08 | 3826 | 1957–2020 | 1979–2018 | −0.4 | 0.22 | −2.0 | Bayanbulak, CN | |
Golubin | 42.46 | 74.50 | 3868 | 1972–2020 | 1979–2018 | 0.7 | 0.31 | 7.7 | Much missing | Bayanbulak, CN |
Karabatkak | 42.15 | 78.30 | 3856 | 1976–2020 | 1979–2018 | 6.4 | 0.41 | 0.1 | Almaty | |
Pamir | ||||||||||
Abramov | 39.63 | 71.6 | 4230 | 1968–2020 | 1979–2018 | −0.8 | −0.02 | 8.1 | Dzhalalabad | |
Kamchatka | ||||||||||
Kozelskiy | 53.23 | 158.82 | 1351 | 1973–1997 | 1979–1997 | 8.4 | 0.21 | −6.9 | Kliuchi, Ozernaja | |
South America | ||||||||||
Antizana | −0.47 | −78.15 | 5122 | 1995–2019 | 1995–2018 | 0.6 | 0.25 | Pichilingue | ||
Zongo | −16.28 | −68.14 | 5318 | 1992–2018 | 1992–2018 | 3.0 | 0.2 | 3.0 | Julianca | |
Chacaltaya | −16.35 | −68.12 | 5441 | 1992–2008 | 1992–2008 | 4.7 | 0.22 | Bw too short record | Julianca | |
Martial Este | −54.78 | −68.4 | 1082 | 2001–2019 | 2001–2018 | −2.4 | −0.79 | 3.0 | Rio Grande, Ushuaia | |
The Antarctic | ||||||||||
Johnsons | −62.67 | −60.35 | 179 | 2002–2019 | 2002–2018 | −6.8 | −1.07 | 4.7 | Arturo Prat, Esperanza | |
Hurd | −62.68 | −60.4 | 203 | 2002–2019 | 2002–2018 | −7.5 | −1.07 | 4.1 | Arturo Prat, Esperanza | |
Bahia del Diablo | −63.82 | −57.43 | 377 | 2000–2019 | 2000–2018 | −2.4 | −1.17 | −2.4 | Too short, much missing | Marambio |
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Ohmura, A.; Boettcher, M. On the Shift of Glacier Equilibrium Line Altitude (ELA) under the Changing Climate. Water 2022, 14, 2821. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14182821
Ohmura A, Boettcher M. On the Shift of Glacier Equilibrium Line Altitude (ELA) under the Changing Climate. Water. 2022; 14(18):2821. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14182821
Chicago/Turabian StyleOhmura, Atsumu, and Maxi Boettcher. 2022. "On the Shift of Glacier Equilibrium Line Altitude (ELA) under the Changing Climate" Water 14, no. 18: 2821. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14182821