A Framework for Sustainable Planning and Decision-Making on Resource Recovery from Wastewater: Showcase for São Paulo Megacity
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Developed Framework
2.2. Studied WWTP
2.3. Data Collection for Application of The Framework in the Case Study
2.4. Data Analysis
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Application of the Proposed Framework for Resource Recovery in a WWTP in São Paulo Megacity
3.1.1. Step 1—Existing Treatment Configuration
3.1.2. Step 2—The Surrounding Areas of the WWTP
3.1.3. Step 3—Qualitative and Quantitative Characteristics of the Treated Effluent and by-Products
3.1.4. Step 4—Mapping the Demand for Recovered Resources
3.1.5. Step 5—Relevant Legal and Regulatory Framework
3.1.6. Step 6—Stakeholders Identification
3.1.7. Steps 7 to 9—Comparison between Resource Recovery Technologies Options
- A:
- Struvite production from supernatant obtained from thickeners and digesters, and sludge dewatering centrate. Crystallization of struvite with magnesium (Mg) and pH increase via NaOH (sodium hydroxide). Examples: Fluidized bed reactor Pearl®, Struvia®, and others.
- B:
- Organic fertilizer and soil conditioner production from windrow co-composting of dewatered sludge. Pre-treatment by mixing different types of wastes (e.g., sawdust/wood chips, chopped urban pruning, sugarcane bagasse, and eucalyptus husk) to achieve the C/N ratio of 20:1 to 30:1 [93,94]. During composting, the temperature of sludge rises to about 50–60 °C, which reduces the pathogen content. After composting, screening using sieves.
- C:
- D:
- Energy recovery by co-processing of sludge as raw material and fuel in kilns for cement industry. Pre-treatment for extra drying of sewage sludge (e.g., fluidized bed dryers and rotary dryers, solar drying, or by recovering residual heat from the cement kiln) until moisture content is less than 30%–25% [98,99,100]. The sewage sludge should be fed to a kiln system from the main burner, kiln inlet, or pre-calciner [99].
3.2. Strengths and Potential Improvements of the Framework
3.2.1. Strengths of the Proposed Framework and Comparison with Similar Studies
3.2.2. Practical Challenges as well as Future Directions and Perspectives
3.3. Limitations
4. Conclusions and Recommendations
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Knowledge Gaps | References of Previous Papers | How this Gap is Addressed in Our Paper |
---|---|---|
Great potential of application of resource recovery solutions in megacities; few studies on nutrient recovery in South American countries | [9,10,11,18] | The framework is applied to a representative WWTP in São Paulo megacity. Additionally, there is an indication of applicability to other megacities, considering resource scarcity and local characteristics. Nutrient recovery options are assessed. |
Lack of studies that focus on interactions with local environment and stakeholders (integrated approach) | [16,17,19] | Linkages of sanitation with economic activity (market demand), social (stakeholders), and analysis from water–energy–nutrient nexus perspective (e.g., water consumption in the area). |
Comparison of resource recovery strategies from systems’ perspective and understanding of related impacts | [20] | Step 9 of the framework contains detailed comparison of different scenarios for energy and nutrient recovery. |
Lack of tools and methodologies to identify the best solution to each context, to support planning and decision-making | [12,13,14] | The framework application allows the most suitable solution to be identified considering technical, environmental, societal, economic, and political/institutional indicators. |
More comprehensive framework for planning, decision-making, and assessment of any kind of resource recovery action, including a large set of indicators and stakeholders’ groups. | [21,22,23,24] | The proposed framework is tested in a real case: It is shown to be simple to apply and facilitates the planning process and the choice of the recovery technology. Nutrient and energy recovery scenarios are analyzed in detail. |
Megacity | Level of Applicability | Reliability Level | Similarity of Wastewater Treatment Characteristics | Demand for Potential Resources | Water Demand; Water Scarcity | Energy Demand | Phosphorus Demand | Expected Impact of Framework Application |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
São Paulo | high | high | high | high | high | high | medium | high |
Mexico City | high | medium | high | high | high | high | medium | high |
Johannesburg | high | medium | high | high | high | high | low | medium |
Cairo | medium | medium | medium | medium | high | low | low | high |
Chengdu | medium | low | low | medium | medium | high | low | medium |
Shanghai | medium | low | medium | medium | high | medium | low | medium |
Delhi | high | low | high | high | high | high | high | high |
New York | low | medium | high | low | low | medium | low | low |
Unit | Material | Quantity b | Unit | Resources with Potential to be Recovered |
---|---|---|---|---|
Screening | Screening material a | 554.55 | kg/day | Energy |
Grit chamber | Grit | 3175 | kg/day | Grit |
Primary settling | Sludge | 1093.8 | m3/day | Energy |
Scum | 0.864 | m3/day | Energy | |
Secondary clarifier | Sludge | - | - | - |
Scum | 9.09 | m3/day | Energy | |
Gravity thickeners Flotation thickeners | Thickened sludge | 748.7 | m3/day | Nutrients |
Thickened sludge | 250.36 | m3/day | Nutrients | |
Digesters | Digested sludge | 1215.75 | m3/day | Nutrients |
Biogas | 3036 c | Nm3/day | Energy | |
Chemical conditioning and dewatering of sludge | Digested and dried sludge | 112.9 | ton/day | Fertilizer (P or biosolids) Energy |
Parameter | Influent (Raw Wastewater) a | Final Effluent (Treated) b | Thickeners (by Gravity) Supernatant | Thickeners (by Flotation) Supernatant | Dewatering Centrate |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
COD (mg/L) | 462.2 | 66.0 | 6970.0 | 118.3 | 1250.0 |
Dissolved COD (mg/L) | 124.8 | 83.3 | - | - | - |
BOD5,20 | 241.0 | 30.3 | - | - | - |
Total Phosphorus (mg/L) | 14.8 | 3.9 | 23.9 | 3.8 | 6.1 |
Dissolved phosphorus (mg/L) | 2.4 | 1.8 | 10.0 | 2.1 | 4.4 |
Total nitrogen (mg/L) | 33.2 | 25.1 | - | - | - |
Demand | Sector | Water (m3/month) | Electricity (kWh/month) | Fertilizer P2O5 (kg) |
---|---|---|---|---|
External | Processing industries | 1,124,786 (food and beverage); 1,020,714 (chemical); 436,314 (textile); 367,722 (metallurgy); 247,293 (rubber); 206,790 (non-metallic mineral products); and 168,714 (automobile) a | 50,450 e | - |
Agriculture | 761,271 b | - | 132,139 g; 93,961 h | |
Urban purposes | 5450 c | 222 (households), 23,210 (public lighting), 2352 (stores/shops) f | - | |
Internal | WWTP analyzed | 6622 d | 2,598,708 | - |
Resource Recovery Technology Options | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Indicator | A. Phosphorus (Struvite Recovery) | B. Nutrients and Organic Matter (Sewage Sludge Co-composting) | C. Energy (Biogas from Co-digestion with Food Waste) | D. Energy (Co-processing of Sludge in Cement Industries) |
Technical and Environmental | ||||
Recovery potential | 10%–40% from WWTP influent P and 85%–95% of P input of the recovery process 1 Estimate for the studied plant 2: About 532.6 kg of P/day (in struvite) | Organic matter content in dewatered sewage sludge (50%–70%), N (3.4%–4%), P (0.5%–2.5%) and micronutrients [118,119,120]. Compost composition: organic carbon 224.5, P 16.7, TKN 28.1 (g/Kg) [121]. Estimate: 2.02 ton P/day in the dewatered sludge 11 | Co-digestion (an increase of 20% of organic loading rate) causes an increase of 21%–50% of methane yield compared to sewage sludge mono-digestion [95,130]. Current methane production: 2118.8 Nm3/day; with co-digestion: 2565.9–3178.2 Nm3/day. Estimated electric power: 8877.7–10,996.4 kWh/day 13 | Typical higher heating value (energy content) of dried sewage sludge is 11.10–22.10 MJ/Kg (mean value: 16.05) [141]. Estimate for the studied plant: 599,786.9MJ/day (thermal energy recovered) [11] |
Technology maturity | Full-scale, but TRL 5 in Brazil 3 [15,107] | Full-scale, similar initiative already taking place in Brazil (TRL 9)12 | Full-scale biogas recovery initiatives already take place in Brazil, including one plant with co-digestion in Paraná state (20,000 m3 of biogas/day) (TRL 9) [131] | Full-scale, few applied in Brazil (sewage sludge corresponds to 0.4% of the total amount of co-processed wastes by cement companies in Brazil) [142] (TRL 9) |
Resource utilization (e.g., energy and chemical consumption) | Electricity: 4.9–6.6 kWh/kg P rec., reactants consumption: MgCl2*6H2O 7.7–8.5 kg/kg P rec. and NaOH: 0.2–0.22 kg/kg P rec. 4 [103] | Low energy demand and low demand for reagents for composting (it may require micronutrient addition and additives to the product) [22] | Electricity consumption for pre-treatment: 35 kWh per ton of organic waste [132]. Electricity consumed by Otto cycle engine: 2% of the total generated (up to 219.9 kWh/day) [133]. Water consumption: 0.37 m3 per ton of waste (in pre-treatment) [134] | Energy consumption for sewage sludge drying: 30 to 1400 kWh per ton of evaporated water (depends on the process) [143,144]. Estimate for the studied plant: 34,577.88 kWh/day [11] |
Need for additional skilled labor | Require a high degree of operator skill to maximize the recovery efficiency, additional labor and maintenance requirements [108,109] | Additional personnel for operation of composting [22] (middle), simple operation12 | Additional personnel for operation of biogas recovery system and of pre-treatment of food waste (middle, authors’ estimation) [135,136] | Low (authors’ assumption). No need of additional skilled personnel for sludge co-processing, especially in industries which already perform co-processing |
Quality of effluent and sludge (removal of pollutants) and environmental concern | Low concentrations of phosphate and ammonia in the final effluent, P concentration in final effluent (around 0.4 mg/L) 5 [110], reduced energy demand (for returning side-streams flows and for aeration [101,103]), no need for reduction of heavy metals, and no organic micropollutants in the product, less production of surplus sludge [111,112] | Biosolids’ land application avoids excess nutrients entering the environment because of their low nutrient contents compared with fossil fuel-based fertilizers [12], global warming impact is reduced [122], presence of heavy metals and persistent pollutants in the sludge and compost should be investigated [123], low gas emissions, possible generation of leachate [22,124] | Reduction of greenhouse gas emissions (52.4%–63.2% kgCO2eq. per ton of waste and sludge) when comparing with digesting sewage sludge as single feedstock [134]. Considering a WWTP with a scale similar to the studied plant (2.29 m3/s), biogas recovery would provide a reduction of 146.1 tons of CO2eq./month [137]. The digestate could be used in agriculture | Release of contaminant gases [141]; no need of specific treatment for ashes [99]; significant reduction in sludge volume to be disposed of; replacement of fossil fuels; the ashes recovery causes a reduction of use of raw material [145]; reduction in greenhouse gas emissions; lower emissions of CO2 and NOx [146,147] |
Economic | ||||
Investment cost | 4.4 to 10 EUR/kg P rec. 6 [102,103] | 88,565 EUR [125]; 1.69 million EUR [94]; 150–310 EUR/ton DM (dry matter) [126] | 750,000 EUR (for pre-treatment of food waste, considering 10 ton/day) [95]; 348,519–394,323 EUR (equipment total costs) [135,138] | 11,704–45,016 EUR/(ton of sludge/day) [148]; sludge co-processing does not demand high investments [149] |
Operation and maintenance cost | 1.6 EUR/kg P rec. 7 [102] | 22,546 EUR/year [125], 894–1254 EUR/month; 97,000 EUR/year [127] | 50 EUR/ton of treated waste [95]; 0.003–0.005 EUR per kWh per year (repair and maintenance); 0.006 EUR per m3 of biogas (biogas treatment); 2691 EUR/year (other maintenance costs) [135] | 10–40 EUR/ton of dewatered sludge [150]; or 90–100 EUR/ton of dried sludge [127] (includes also investment costs). |
Revenue from recovery | Price of struvite 0.3–1 EUR/kg P [101], profit from struvite production: EUR -0.04 to 0.46 per kg of struvite recovered each day [113], there are savings due to the avoidance of unwanted struvite encrustations in pipes and pumps [103] | Profit from compost sales, price of organic fertilizer: 14.5–17 EUR/ton [125,128] | Considering the electricity price (0.06 EUR/kWh) and the mean power generated by the WWTP, the avoided costs would be 185,641.6–229,944.2 EUR per year14. Avoidance of transport and disposal costs of organic waste to landfill (EUR 12.2/ton of waste per month) [139] | Reduces production, operational and maintenance costs of cement industries [93]; the saving out of using a 7.5% wet sludge in one kiln normally consuming 6.3 t/h of dry pet-coke (1% moisture) reach 8.0 EUR/h [151]; reduction of 66% of fossil fuel consumption [145] |
Logistics (necessary changes) | Product is easy to transport [114], transportation until end-users necessary, installation of reactor for struvite production 8 | Requires transportation until end-users, space demand for composting and for storage of the compost, partnership with providers of other organic wastes necessary 8, it may require further sludge drying prior composting [93] | Requires storage, transportation, and pre-treatment of food waste (e.g., wheel loaders, crusher) [140]; biogas collection, transport, and storage system; biogas treatment (desulfurization); energy recovery unit; monitoring unit [135] | Pre-treatment of sludge drying necessary; transport of sewage sludge until cement industries; dosing and feeding system might be needed [99]; possibility of adaptations in the kiln exhaust system [152] |
Societal | ||||
Acceptance | 4 (high) 9, struvite is not a well-known fertilizer among local farmers | 3 (medium), may cause bad odour, more acceptable if the composting facility is located adjacent to the WWTP [116,129] | 4 (high) (authors’ assumption), interest in biogas recovery is reported in local planning documents | 5 (high), considering cement industries perception on sewage sludge for co-processing [100] |
Institutional and political | ||||
Accordance with policies and legal requirements | Possible, but national legislation (e.g., quality criteria of the product) needs to be developed to facilitate struvite recovery options 10 | Yes, there are sufficient regulations and policies 10 | Yes, there are sufficient regulations and policies, and incentives (tax deductions) to utilities that recover biogas 10 | Yes, there are national and state legislations that regulate co-processing in general 10 |
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Chrispim, M.C.; de M. de Souza, F.; Scholz, M.; Nolasco, M.A. A Framework for Sustainable Planning and Decision-Making on Resource Recovery from Wastewater: Showcase for São Paulo Megacity. Water 2020, 12, 3466. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12123466
Chrispim MC, de M. de Souza F, Scholz M, Nolasco MA. A Framework for Sustainable Planning and Decision-Making on Resource Recovery from Wastewater: Showcase for São Paulo Megacity. Water. 2020; 12(12):3466. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12123466
Chicago/Turabian StyleChrispim, Mariana C., Fernanda de M. de Souza, Miklas Scholz, and Marcelo A. Nolasco. 2020. "A Framework for Sustainable Planning and Decision-Making on Resource Recovery from Wastewater: Showcase for São Paulo Megacity" Water 12, no. 12: 3466. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12123466