Conflict Resilience of Water and Energy Supply Infrastructure: Insights from Yemen
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Study Outline
2.1. Resilience and Vulnerability of Infrastructure: Framework, Terms, and Concepts
2.2. Resilience Assessment and Criteria
2.3. Study Relevance, Method, and Data
3. Case Region: Conflicts, Infrastructure, and Resilience in the Middle East
4. Infrastructure Resilience: The Case of the Yemen Conflict
4.1. Water Sector
4.2. Energy Sector
5. Assessment and Discussion
6. Summary and Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Category of Infrastructure System Properties | Assessment Areas Relevant for Conflict Resilience | Qualitative Conflict Resilience Criteria |
---|---|---|
Hardware | ||
System configuration | Interconnectivity: Interdependence within infrastructure units and with other systems | Existence of self-sufficient supply (e.g., closed-loop) systems, ability to absorb sudden shocks without cascading impacts (safe failure) |
Scale: Size of the system | Ability to integrate small-sized systems to backups and larger systems | |
Centralization/decentralization: Level of accumulation of infrastructure and management tasks | Decentralized systems availability | |
Mobility: Ability to dismantle and relocate the system | Existence of mobility at least partly (dismantling and rebuilding), or through portable design | |
System resources | Maintenance and resource availability: Conservation of assets | Design, know-how, and (low-tech) resources to maintain the functionality of the system |
Baseline: Pre-conflict infrastructure problems | Ability to integrate emergency response to holistic infrastructure planning issues | |
Software | ||
Actors relationships | Role of the Government: Public control, oversight and planning | Level of public support, involvement, and capacities |
Community relationships and involvement: Communities’ participation and quality of relationships and trust | Level of communities’ participation and cooperation in community | |
Formal regulation | Institutional arrangements: Contractual issues such as monitoring instruments and transaction costs (exchange costs related to lack of information exchange, legal ambiguity, and transportation requirements) | Tackling market imperfections and contractual problems in infrastructure-related transactions |
Liquidity and equity issues: Availability of financing mechanisms and affordability | Ability of large population segments to access/afford infrastructure services |
General Development Indicators 1 | General Energy Statistics 2 | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
GDP per capita, PPP (current international $) (2013) | Population ages 15–64 (% of total) (2019) | United Nations Human Development Index (scale 0– 1) (2020) | Poverty headcount ratio at national poverty line (% of population) (2014) | Available renewable energy resources (TWh) | Available fossil fuel based on current production 2015 (TWh) | Production (ktoe), 2018 with 2014 in () | Imports (ktoe), (2018 with 2014 in () | Exports, (ktoe), 2018 with 2014 in () |
3689 | 58% | 0.4 | 49% | 17,529 | 47 | 1796 (16,289) | 1612 (4769) | NA (12,976) |
Electricity consumption 2018 with 2014 in () 2 | ||||||||
Oil | Natural gas | Solar PV | Total | Final consumption (consisting of industry, residential, ect.) i | Industry | Residential | Commercial and public services | Other non-specified UN |
2836 (4698) | 315 (2948) | 458 (9) | 3609 (7655) | 2192 (4553) | 64 (161) | 1769 (3047) | 200 (750) | 159 (595) |
Key Water indicators | ||||||||
Total renewable water resources (Billion cubic meter per year) 1 | Water resources per capita (cubic meter per person per year) (2014) 1 | Water dependency ratio (percentage of water used from sources outside the country) 3 | Total water withdrawals (Billion cubic meter per year) (2005) 1 | Water stress: freshwater withdrawals as % of available resources (2014) 1 | Water withdrawals for agriculture, domestic and industry sectors respectively (% of total withdrawals) (2005) 1 | Water withdrawals by source, namely groundwater, surface water, desalination and treated wastewater (2000) 3 | Use of improved sanitation facilities (2012) (% of population) 4,ii | Use of drinking-water from improved sources (2012) (% of population) 4,ii |
2.1 | 81 | 0% | 3.5 | 227.68% | 91%, 7%, 2% | 70.5%, 29%, 0.3%, 0.2% | 53% | 55% |
Water Utilities | City Population in Thousands | Population Increase | Water Coverage | Sewerage Coverage | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2014 | 2017 | 2014 | 2017 | 2014 | 2017 | ||
Ja’ar/Zinjibar, Al-Husn, Al Kood, Al-Makhzan | 101.0 | 108.4 | 7.4% | 84% | 80% | 47% | 44% |
Aden | 855.9 | 957.2 | 11.8% | 92% | 86% | 79% | 69% |
Amran | 70.1 | 74.6 | 6.4% | 49% | 50% | 32% | 36% |
Dhamar | 205.5 | 228.5 | 11.2% | 76% | 70% | 46% | 42% |
Mukalla | 322.4 | 351.4 | 9.0% | 93% | 91% | 63% | 62% |
Al Shehr | 109.2 | 120.1 | 10.0% | 89% | 83% | 43% | 40% |
Hajjah | 71.0 | 77.6 | 9.3% | 99% | 99% | 60% | 55% |
Mabian | 50.0 | 52.5 | 5.0% | 46% | 46% | - | - |
Hudaydah | 564.3 | 622.0 | 10.2% | 82% | 75% | 49% | 41% |
Bajil | 73.9 | 80.8 | 9.3% | 74% | 77% | 44% | 41% |
Zabid | 37.7 | 41.2 | 9.3% | 95% | 92% | 80% | 74% |
Ibb | 324.4 | 349.3 | 7.7% | 77% | 80% | 61% | 66% |
Al Hawta, Tuban | 140.8 | 163.8 | 16.3% | 82% | 71% | - | - |
Sa’ada | 70.0 | 79.0 | 12.9% | 35% | 36% | - | - |
Sana’a | 2824.0 | 3234.0 | 14.5% | 48% | 43% | 45% | 40% |
Taiz | 633.1 | 654.3 | 3.4% | 80% | 38% | 70% | 38% |
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Al-Saidi, M.; Roach, E.L.; Al-Saeedi, B.A.H. Conflict Resilience of Water and Energy Supply Infrastructure: Insights from Yemen. Water 2020, 12, 3269. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12113269
Al-Saidi M, Roach EL, Al-Saeedi BAH. Conflict Resilience of Water and Energy Supply Infrastructure: Insights from Yemen. Water. 2020; 12(11):3269. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12113269
Chicago/Turabian StyleAl-Saidi, Mohammad, Emma Lauren Roach, and Bilal Ahmed Hassen Al-Saeedi. 2020. "Conflict Resilience of Water and Energy Supply Infrastructure: Insights from Yemen" Water 12, no. 11: 3269. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12113269