Environmental Factors and the Microbial Quality of Urban Drinking Water in a Low-Income Country: The Case of Madagascar
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Sampling Strategy and Microbial Analysis
2.2. Samples Selected for the Analysis
2.3. Parameters Selected for the Description of the Water Supply Systems
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Spatio-Temporal Variation of Water Contamination
3.2. Definition of Profiles of Water Contamination Based on Temporal Variation and Most Relevant Contamination
3.3. Impact of Rainfall Pattern on Contamination
3.4. Main Factors Influencing Water Quality (Environmental Clustering)
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Conventional Treatment | Unconventional Treatment | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Classic | Classic + Neutralization | Chlorination | Filtration + Chlorination | N of Stations | Total (%) | |
Surface Water | ||||||
Lakes | 1113 | 1419 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 2532 (20%) |
Rivers | 3487 | 1436 | 0 | 0 | 11 | 4923 (39%) |
Total | 4600 | 2855 | 0 | 0 | 7455 2 (60%) | |
Groundwater | ||||||
Boreholes | 0 | 1335 | 1458 | 0 | 5 | 2793 (22%) |
Wells | 144 | 1014 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 1158 (9%) |
Water springs | 0 | 533 | 248 | 308 | 4 | 1089 (9%) |
Total | 144 | 2882 | 1706 | 308 | 5040 (40%) | |
Total number of stations | 11 | 16 3 | 4 | 1 | 32 | |
Total (%) | 4744 (38%) | 5737 (46%) | 1706 (14%) | 308 (2%) | 12,495 1 (100%) |
Division | Sites | FIB 1 | IE 2 | EC 3 | TC 4 | SSRC 5 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Toamasina | Vatomandry Bcn | 0.290 | 0.290 | 0.144 | 0.357 | 0.876 |
Sainte Marie Rc | 0.844 | 0.816 | 0.442 | 0.526 | 0.394 | |
Soaniera Ivongo Rc | 0.744 | 0.744 | 0.000 | 0.641 | 0.259 | |
Fenerive Est Wcn | 0.620 | 0.620 | 0.000 | 0.436 | 0.671 | |
Mahanoro Wc | 0.489 | 0.489 | 0.000 | 0.345 | 0.860 | |
Toamasina Rc | 0.535 | 0.535 | 0.308 | 0.578 | 0.656 | |
Antananarivo | Tsiroanomandidy Rcn | 0.411 | 0.411 | 0.316 | 0.489 | 0.785 |
Andekaleka Rc | 0.723 | 0.575 | 0.475 | 0.387 | 0.552 | |
Moramanga Rc | 0.553 | 0.419 | 0.387 | 0.576 | 0.724 | |
Ambatondrazaka Su | 0.642 | 0.596 | 0.326 | 0.520 | 0.768 | |
Miarinarivo Scn | 0.717 | 0.662 | 0.326 | 0.570 | 0.536 | |
Mahasolo Wcn | 0.734 | 0.541 | 0.541 | 0.817 | 0.483 | |
Mandraka Lc | 0.596 | 0.596 | 0.000 | 0.341 | 0.778 | |
Soavandriana Scn | 0.628 | 0.628 | 0.235 | 0.756 | 0.628 | |
Analavory Su | 0.781 | 0.695 | 0.488 | 0.649 | 0.600 | |
Ambatolampy Lcn | 0.588 | 0.454 | 0.370 | 0.588 | 0.698 | |
Antsirabe | Antsirabe Lcn | 0.677 | 0.629 | 0.359 | 0.619 | 0.609 |
Antanifotsy Lc | 0.727 | 0.727 | 0.414 | 0.590 | 0.661 | |
Fianarantsoa | Manakara Rc | 0.674 | 0.448 | 0.492 | 0.674 | 0.607 |
Faranfangana Rcn | 0.694 | 0.694 | 0.342 | 0.647 | 0.420 | |
Fianarantsoa Rc | 0.660 | 0.537 | 0.378 | 0.574 | 0.706 | |
Toliara | Bezaha Bu | 0.859 | 0.754 | 0.398 | 0.398 | 0.634 |
Tolagnaro Lc | 0.220 | 0.220 | 0.000 | 0.382 | 0.915 | |
Toliara Bu | 0.598 | 0.534 | 0.421 | 0.583 | 0.671 | |
Mahajanga | Maevatanana Wcn | 0.426 | 0.000 | 0.426 | 0.543 | 0.884 |
Mampikony Wcn | 0.431 | 0.431 | 0.000 | 0.500 | 0.804 | |
Port Berge Rcn | 0.751 | 0.562 | 0.562 | 0.751 | 0.630 | |
Mahajanga Bcn | 0.772 | 0.764 | 0.336 | 0.587 | 0.598 | |
Marovoay Bu | 0.848 | 0.719 | 0.504 | 0.671 | 0.504 | |
Antsiranana | Sambava Bu | 0.476 | 0.386 | 0.386 | 0.515 | 0.798 |
Antsiranana Rcn | 0.427 | 0.338 | 0.275 | 0.492 | 0.832 | |
Nosy Be Lcn | 0.738 | 0.598 | 0.545 | 0.647 | 0.694 |
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Bastaraud, A.; Rakotondramanga, J.M.; Mahazosaotra, J.; Ravaonindrina, N.; Jambou, R. Environmental Factors and the Microbial Quality of Urban Drinking Water in a Low-Income Country: The Case of Madagascar. Water 2018, 10, 1450. https://doi.org/10.3390/w10101450
Bastaraud A, Rakotondramanga JM, Mahazosaotra J, Ravaonindrina N, Jambou R. Environmental Factors and the Microbial Quality of Urban Drinking Water in a Low-Income Country: The Case of Madagascar. Water. 2018; 10(10):1450. https://doi.org/10.3390/w10101450
Chicago/Turabian StyleBastaraud, Alexandra, Jean Marius Rakotondramanga, Jackson Mahazosaotra, Noror Ravaonindrina, and Ronan Jambou. 2018. "Environmental Factors and the Microbial Quality of Urban Drinking Water in a Low-Income Country: The Case of Madagascar" Water 10, no. 10: 1450. https://doi.org/10.3390/w10101450
APA StyleBastaraud, A., Rakotondramanga, J. M., Mahazosaotra, J., Ravaonindrina, N., & Jambou, R. (2018). Environmental Factors and the Microbial Quality of Urban Drinking Water in a Low-Income Country: The Case of Madagascar. Water, 10(10), 1450. https://doi.org/10.3390/w10101450