A high level of genetic purity provides levels of performance that meet predicted expectations; moreover, in maize, as a hybrid crop, there is the additional necessity of maintaining purity of F
1 seed so that high performance is carried through to the commercial product. Without a high standard of purity for varieties and inbred lines, genotypes will have the opportunity to drift [
16].
4.1. Varietal Uniformity Estimation by Morphological Markers
Despite the fact that the genetic basis of most morphological traits still remains unknown and that the morphological traits provide, at best, an indirect way of assessing genetic purity, their observation in field grownouts continues to be the most widely used approach for describing varieties de novo, identifying varieties and monitoring genetic purity [
17].
In this study, the application of the appropriate descriptors (i.e., 31 morphological traits), a measurement type (i.e., metrical measurement—scale level of measurement, and visual assessment—ordinal level of measurement) and the biometric method (i.e., the STDEV and off-types approaches) resulted in higher quality information from morphological markers observed, which was in line with reported phenotypic characterization of maize inbred lines using UPOV descriptors [
18].
According to the STDEV approach suitable for the determination of off-types using measurement of single plants’ MS traits [
12], variation in the evaluated traits’ expression indicated satisfactory level of uniformity for paternal inbred line, considering that the STDEV values for all traits were below those for comparable L
c line. On the other hand, STDEV values for certain evaluated traits observed in F1
exp and its maternal inbred line were above those for comparable F
c and L
c varieties, although not exceeded the defined threshold value 1.26 for a sample of 40 plants in size [
13], as was the case in this study, also indicating a satisfactory level of their uniformity.
It was reported that the degradation of measurement scale from scale to ordinal level significantly decreases environmental effects on the quantitative traits. The results obtained using such a biometric method have shown to be more reliable for genotypes comparison than the results based on mean values of the scale measurements over several years or locations [
19]. Hence, according to the off-types approach, the maternal inbred exhibited more than two out of five levels of trait expression for the following traits: the anthocyanin coloration of tassel anthers, silks and brace roots as quantitative traits, and the type of grain as qualitative trait, respectively, which was even more pronounced in the experimental F1
exp hybrid. It is well known that plant developmental stage may induce the variation in morphological traits’ expression [
20]. As such, maize silk, usually light green in color at the initial phase, may become red, yellow, light brown or reddish-brown upon maturation [
21]. Two consecutive ratings of trait expression marked as slight variations can be neglected since the evaluated traits are strongly dependent upon plant developmental stage. In addition, even if the part of the variation was attributed to the micro-environmental impact and the subjectivity of the examiner, high variation in several traits, often on different plants, as was the case in the present study, more likely indicated that the observed non-uniformity has a genetic background. This could be the consequence of the parental non-uniformity and/or out-cross pollination during hybrid seed production [
2]. The higher level of heterogeneity observed in maternal line could be most likely attributed to the earlier generation of inbreeding, although pollen contamination and/or seed admixture during maintenance breeding could not be completely ruled out [
22]. Since, as a rule, the states of expression for qualitative traits are not influenced by the environment [
23], in this study, a part of the variation in type of grain trait could be attributed to the xenia effect because pollen effect could potentially cause the modification in the biochemical constituents of maize kernels [
24].
4.2. Genetic Purity Estimation by Protein Markers
In this study, the conventional method of genetic purity assessment was conducted in the field, based on morphological traits. However, phenotypic uniformity assay could not provide information on the purity of specific genetic attributes that relate to the grain quality of examined maize genotypes.
Seed storage proteins have been used as biochemical markers to estimate genetic purity in many plant species [
8,
25,
26,
27]. Their advantages include high stability under any set of environmental conditions, inheritance in an additive way and genotype dependence regarding the presence and position of storage proteins’ bands identified by isoelectric focusing (IEF) [
28]. A modification of IEF on polyacrylamide gel with a thickness of less than 0.15 mm is called ultrathin-layer isoelectric focusing (UTLIEF) and offers a faster, safer and cheaper technique for protein separation [
29,
30]. For this reason, UTLIEF method for variety identification and genetic purity testing was applied in this study.
It was reported that, in the process of seed genetic purity control, UTLIEF method enable the distinguishing between maternal and true F1 seeds, the presence of self-pollinated seeds in hybrid seed stocks and the contamination caused by unrelated lines’ pollination [
31,
32,
33,
34]. However, in the present study, UTLIEF separation of albumins and prolamins of individual seeds did not enable detection of a specific paternal marker band, making it impossible to determine potential selfing rate. Additionally, no genetic impurities in the tested F1
exp hybrid were found. In chapter 8.9.3 of ISTA Rules [
14], two different ampholyte pH ranges in gradient UTLIEF gels (composition of pH 2–4/4–6/5–8/4–9 and pH 5–8/2–11) are proposed. In this study, pH range 5–8/2–11 was the source of pH gradient in the gels, which might have led to lower possibility of detecting potential protein bands that would focus at the other overlapping pH regions (i.e., pH 2–4/4–6/5–8/4–9).
The conventional method of genetic purity assessment conducted in the field revealed off-types in F1
exp and maternal line, which was opposite to UTLIEF results on genetic purity. Based on the results obtained, it can be suggested that the similar genetic makeup of parental components when seed storage proteins are concerned could lead to low potency of UTLIEF method in determining hybrid purity, which could have been the case with F1
exp purity. The question often arises whether biochemical and molecular methods for determining purity need to reflect genetic differences related to traditional morphological traits. For practical purposes, the genetic approaches must optimally be able to identify seedlots that will express genetically based morphological or chemical differences that would be of concern to the farmer and industrial customers, even if those differences have no agronomic significance. In the case of maize, customers will not be satisfied with a crop that is genetically pure for a set of isozyme or DNA loci, but which expresses variability for plant height or kernel type that exceeds the normal bounds of experience or expectation. Because isozymes and genes affecting morphological traits are most usually coded by different and unlinked loci, a “clean” isozyme profile will not necessarily correlate with morphological homogeneity [
35].
4.3. Genetic Purity Estimation by Molecular Markers
Assessment of genetic purity of parental inbred lines and parent-offspring test for the resulting F1 hybrids is an essential quality control function in maize hybrid breeding [
22]. SSRs have proven to be particularly useful for providing breeders and geneticists with a tool to link phenotypic and genotypic variation, due to co-dominant inheritance pattern, high levels of polymorphism, multiallelic nature, reproducibility and the ability to detect polymorphism in closely related lines [
36,
37,
38]. For these reasons, in the present study, the quality control genotyping, i.e., genetic purity estimation by SSR markers, was done to detect any potential contamination which could have happened during F1
exp maize hybrid development and its parental inbred lines maintenance.
Out of 10 SSR primer pairs used, 2 SSRs (
phi015 and
umc1133), which showed the polymorphism between parental lines and confirmed their uniformity, also detected non-parental alleles in all F1
exp plant samples, showing longer fragments than parental alleles; furthermore, this was in line with the reported occurrence of non-parental banding patterns in RIL progeny compared with the individual lines using simple-sequence repeat primers [
39]. There are several factors which can lead to appearance of non-parental alleles.
Expansion in SSR length can occur through unequal crossover, leading to a profile pattern for progeny samples that differs from the parental lines. The use of tri- and tetra-nucleotide repeat motifs SSR markers in the present study, excludes, to a higher extent, the possibility that SSR regions might be affected by recombination due to reported high affinity of recombination enzymes towards dinucleotide repeat sequences [
40]. However, mutation as a heritable change, distinct from recombination. The misalignment of DNA strands during the replication of repeated DNA sequences can lead to genetic rearrangements such as microsatellite instability, and if it occurs in the primer strand, base pairs will be added, resulting in a strand that is longer than the parental one [
41]. Because dinucleotide motifs are highly prone to mutation, mutation also should not be considered as a potential causative source of non-parental bands’ occurrence in F1
exp maize hybrid [
42]. Although in this study there is no evidence of the marker position in the heterochromatin region, it could be possible that non-parental bands observed in F1
exp resulted from chromosomal aberrations caused by rearrangement, due to the ability of the repetitive microsatellite DNA sequences to change their copy number is thought to promote random chromosomal rearrangements [
43]. Moreover, because transposons are responsible for various chromosomal rearrangements and they participate in insertion mutagenesis [
44,
45], they may also play a role in the appearance of non-parental inheritance in F1
exp maize hybrid [
46].
However, a percentage of gene loci remains heterozygous despite inbreeding, and even a moderate advantage of heterozygotes over homozygotes can inhibit the process of obtaining homozygosity. In this study, only
umc1545, which showed the polymorphism between parental lines and confirmed the uniformity of paternal inbred, detected non-specific bands in maternal plant samples recognized as off-types. Obtained results confirmed that a single co-dominant marker is sufficient to discern false hybrids in purity assessment [
47], strongly recommending this SSR marker as a good candidate for genetic purity identification. The more pronounced occurrence of non-specific bands (i.e., off-types) in F1
exp hybrid clearly confirmed that the purity level of the parental inbred lines determined the purity of the resulting F1
exp hybrid, i.e., that the residual heterozygosity within parental inbred lines lead to appearance of non-specific bands in progeny [
5,
48,
49]. Although, in this study, the applicability in genetic purity estimation was presented for only one pair of inbred-hybrid combination, this SSR marker has already been shown to be efficient in genetic purity testing of 15 inbreds as parental lines of MRIZP released hybrids.
Currently, most maize breeding programs consider S4 or later generation as a fixed inbred line for evaluation in hybrid combination. Pure or fixed are considered the inbreds in which the portion of heterozygous SSR loci does not exceed 5% [
16]. In opposite, inbred lines with higher than 5% heterogeneous SSR loci are considered either not fixed (i.e., in the early generation of inbreeding) or likely to have been contaminated by pollen or seed of another source during seed regeneration, maintenance breeding and bulking [
50]. It was reported that 21% of CIMMYT’s and 30% of IITA’s inbred lines showed heterogeneity values ranging from 12.5% to 31.5% [
51]. In this study, paternal inbred exhibited 100% genetic purity according to SSR analysis. However, maternal inbred line had residual heterozygosity of 17.5%, which is significantly higher than the threshold of 5%. Lines with more than 15% residual heterozygosity are likely to have been contaminated with pollen from unrelated genetic materials and are required to be subjected to additional generations of inbreeding and to an extensive reselection for the original genotype [
16].
Both the SSR and UPOV VS morphological markers showed homogeneity of paternal inbred; however, traditional morphological assay detected a higher percentage of genetic impurities of maternal inbred for 5% and of derived F1
exp hybrid for 10%, respectively, compared to molecular marker-based assay. These findings confirmed that a strict correlation between molecular and morphological differences will only be possible if there is tight linkage between the molecular marker loci and the loci that form the genetic basis for expression of the morphological traits and if environmental factors do not significantly affect their expression [
35].