Plastic Waste Upcycling: A Sustainable Solution for Waste Management, Product Development, and Circular Economy
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Upcycling of Plastic Waste
2.1. Vitrimerization
2.2. Nanocomposite Fabrication
2.3. Additive Manufacturing
2.4. Catalytic Transformation of Waste Plastic for the Production of Fine Chemicals and Carbon Materials
2.4.1. Nanocatalyzed Pyrolysis
2.4.2. Nanocatalyzed Gasification
2.4.3. Nanocatalyzed Hydrogenolysis and Hydrocracking
2.4.4. Nanocatalyzed Photoreforming
2.4.5. Nanocatalyzed Electroreforming
2.5. Industrial Biotechnology
2.5.1. Enzymatic Depolymerization
2.5.2. Biopolymer Synthesis
3. Conclusions and Outlook
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Composites | Processing Method | Obtained Properties | Applications | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
rPET/CuO NPs | Electrospinning and chemical precipitation techniques. | Photocatalytic activity efficiency for removing the methylene blue dye up to 99%. | Water treatment and filtration | [23] |
rHDPE/CuO NPs | Melt mixing and compression molding. | Increased electron density, mass attenuation coefficient, and effective atomic number for γ-ray energies with point sources 356 keV from 133Ba, 662 keV from 137Cs, and 1332 keV from 60Co. | Radioactive source shielding | [24] |
rLDPE/SiO2/TiO2 NPs | Melt extrusion, granulation, and compression molding. | Tensile strength of 8.4 MPa, and UV protection factor of 1500+. | UV shielding | [25] |
rLDPE/PET/Al/ Graphite NPs | Shear milling, melt extrusion, and injection molding. | Thermal conductivity of 1.7 W/mK, and electrical conductivity of 10−10 S/cm. | Electronic packaging | [26] |
rLDPE/PA/Al nanoflake | Powder mixing and compression molding. | Thermal conductivity in the range of 1.4–4.8 W/mK, and electrical conductivity of 10−13 S/cm. | Electronic packaging | [27] |
rPS/SnO2 NPs | Thermally induced phase separation. | Photodegradation efficiency of rhodamine B dye under UV irradiation up to 98.2%. | Water treatment and filtration | [28] |
rPS/TiO2 NPs/Al microparticles | Solution mixing and electrospinning. | Water contact angle of 157° (superhydrophobic), and daily water productivity of >1.35 L/m2. | Fog water-harvesting | [29] |
Filament Material | Extrusion Conditions | 3D Printing Parameters | Mechanical Properties of Printed Structures | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
rPET/biochar composite | Single screw extrusion at 250 °C. | Bed temperature of 50 °C, nozzle temperature of 270 °C, layer height of 0.4 mm, print speed of 50 mm/s, nozzle diameter of 0.6 mm. | Tensile strengths in the range of 46–52 MPa, elastic modulus in the range of 0.7–0.9 GPa. | [37] |
rPET/cellulose fiber composite | Twin screw extrusion with screw speed of 38–43 rpm, feed port at 200 °C, adjacent zone at 260 °C, main zones at 240 °C, die at 220 °C. | Nozzle temperature of 260 °C, print speed of 30 mm/s. | Impact resistance of 23.30 J/m, and impact strength of 2268 J/m2. | [38] |
rPET/CCFs composite | Co-extrusion. | Bed temperature of 80 °C, nozzle temperature of 230 °C, layer height of 0.2 mm, print speed of 300 mm/s, nozzle diameter of 0.4 mm. | Tensile strength of 604.5 MPa, flexural strength of 318.6 MPa. | [39] |
rHDPE/PP/PP-MAh blend | Single screw extrusion with screw speed of 20 rpm, feed port at 140 °C, adjacent zone at 150 °C, main zones at 160 °C, die at 155 °C. | Bed temperature of 105 °C, nozzle temperature of 215 °C. | Tensile yield stress of 4.78 MPa, strain of 38.1%. | [40] |
rHDPE/CF composite | Twin screw extrusion with screw speed of 30 rpm, feed port at 180 °C, adjacent zone at 185 °C, main zones at 190 °C, die at 200 °C. | Bed temperature of 80 °C, nozzle temperature of 290 °C, nozzle diameter of 0.8 mm. | Tensile yield stress in the range of 18–21 MPa, tensile strengths in the range of 37–64 GPa. | [41] |
rPP/cellulose composite | Twin screw extrusion with screw speed of 100 rpm, feed port at 140 °C, adjacent zone at 170 °C, main zones at 180 °C, die at 175 °C. | Bed temperature of 100 °C, nozzle temperature of 220 °C, layer height of 0.2 mm, print speed of 20–50 mm/s, nozzle diameter of 0.8 mm. | Tensile strengths in the range of 13–18 MPa, elastic modulus in the range of 1100–1500 MPa. | [42] |
rPP/harakeke fibers, and rPP/hemp fibers composites | Twin screw extrusion with screw speed of 50 rpm, feed port at 150 °C, adjacent and main zones at 170 °C, die at 180 °C. | Nozzle temperature of 230 °C, print speed of 50 mm/min, nozzle diameter of 1.0 mm. | PP/harakeke fibers exhibited tensile strength and Young’s modulus in the range of 27–39 MPa and 1612–2767 MPa, respectively, whereas PP/hemp fibers were in the range of 28–38 MPa and 1683–2681 MPa. | [43] |
rPP/CBS composite | Twin screw extrusion with screw speed in the range of 6–13 rpm, feed port at 175 °C, and the die at 190 °C. | Bed temperature of 90 °C, nozzle temperature of 250 °C, layer height of 0.25 mm, print speed of 60 mm/s, nozzle diameter of 0.8 mm. | Tensile strengths in the range of 8–15 MPa. | [44] |
rPP/RH composite | Twin screw extrusion with screw speed of 9 rpm, feed port at 180 °C, adjacent zone at 185 °C, main zones at 190 °C, die at 195 °C. | Bed temperature of 80 °C, nozzle temperature of 240 °C, print speed of 60 mm/s, nozzle diameter of 0.8 mm. | Tensile strengths in the range of 5–14 MPa. | [45] |
rPP/rPET, and rPP/rPS blend | Twin screw extrusion with screw speed of 25 rpm, feed port at 140 °C, adjacent zone at 170 °C, main zones at 240 °C, die at 245 °C. | Bed temperature of 100 °C, nozzle temperature of 260 °C, layer height of 0.2 mm, print speed of 20–50 mm/s, nozzle diameter of 0.5 mm. | PP/PET exhibited maximum tensile strength and elastic modulus of 24 MPa and 980 MPa, respectively, whereas PP/PS exhibited 23 MPa and 1459 MPa. | [46] |
Plastic | Catalyst | Process | Products | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
HDPE | HZSM-5 zeolite | Pyrolysis | Ethylene | [52] |
PE, PP, PS | Fe/Al2O3 | Pyrolysis | Amorphous carbon, carbon nanotubes, hydrogen | [53] |
PP | Ni-Cu/La2O3 | Pyrolysis | Multiwalled carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofibers | [54] |
LDPE | Fe-Mo/MgO | Pyrolysis | Carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofibers, graphene | [55] |
PET, PE, PP | Ni/ZSM-5 | Gasification | Syngas | [56,57] |
HDPE | Ni/CeO2–ZrO2 | Gasification | Hydrogen-rich syngas | [58] |
HDPE | Ni-Fe/CNT-PC | Gasification | Hydrogen-rich syngas | [59] |
PP | Ni/Al2O3 | Gasification | Hydrogen-rich syngas | [60] |
LDPE | Pt/S-ZrO2 | Hydrogenolysis | Liquid fuels | [61] |
LDPE | Pt/USY zeolite | Hydrogenolysis | Alkanes | [62] |
PE | Pt/SrTiO3 | Hydrogenolysis | Lubricants | [63] |
HDPE | Pt/SiO2/mSiO2 | Hydrogenolysis | Alkanes | [64] |
LDPE | Pt/WZrO2 | Hydrogenolysis | Alkanes | [65] |
LDPE | Pt/WO3/ZrO2/HY zeolite | Hydrogenolysis | Liquid fuels | [66] |
PE, PP | Ru/C | Hydrogenolysis | Alkanes, liquid fuels, lubricants | [67,68,69] |
PE, PP | Ru/CeO2 | Hydrogenolysis | Liquid fuels | [70] |
PP | Ru/TiO2 | Hydrogenolysis | Lubricants | [71] |
LDPE | Ru/WZrO2 | Hydrogenolysis | Alkanes | [72] |
PET, PS | Ru/Nb2O5 | Hydrogenolysis | Arenes | [73] |
LDPE, HDPE, PP | Ru/ZrO2 | Hydrogenolysis | Alkanes, liquid fuels | [74] |
LDPE, PP, PS | Ru/FAU zeolite | Hydrogenolysis | Grid-compatible gas streams | [75] |
PET | Co/TiO2 | Hydrogenolysis | Arenes | [76] |
PET | CuNa/SiO2 | Hydrogenolysis | Alcohol, aromatics | [77] |
PET | Pt/C, Ru-Cu/SiO2 | Tandem solvolysis–hydrogeneration | Cycloalkanes, aromatics | [78] |
PE | Pt/γ-Al2O3 | Tandem hydrogenolysis–aromatization | Long-chain alkylaromatics | [79] |
PP, PS | TiO2 | Photoreforming | Hydroxyl, carbonyl, and carbon-hydrogen groups | [80] |
LDPE | ZnO2 | Photoreforming | Hydroperoxides, peroxides, carbonyl, and unsaturated groups | [81] |
PET | CdS/CdOx | Photoreforming | Hydrogen | [82] |
PET | CNx/Ni2P | Photoreforming | Hydrogen | [83] |
PE | Pt/TiO2 | Tandem solvolysis–photoreforming | Alkene, alkane | [84] |
PET | Pd/NF | Electroreforming | Hydrogen | [85] |
PET | CoNi0.25P | Electroreforming | Hydrogen | [86] |
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Balu, R.; Dutta, N.K.; Roy Choudhury, N. Plastic Waste Upcycling: A Sustainable Solution for Waste Management, Product Development, and Circular Economy. Polymers 2022, 14, 4788. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14224788
Balu R, Dutta NK, Roy Choudhury N. Plastic Waste Upcycling: A Sustainable Solution for Waste Management, Product Development, and Circular Economy. Polymers. 2022; 14(22):4788. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14224788
Chicago/Turabian StyleBalu, Rajkamal, Naba Kumar Dutta, and Namita Roy Choudhury. 2022. "Plastic Waste Upcycling: A Sustainable Solution for Waste Management, Product Development, and Circular Economy" Polymers 14, no. 22: 4788. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14224788