State of the Art and New Directions on Electrospun Lignin/Cellulose Nanofibers for Supercapacitor Application: A Systematic Literature Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Systematic Review Methodology
2.1. Research Questions
2.2. Search Strategy
2.2.1. Electronic Databases
Keywords Search
Search Process
Search Criteria
Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
Eligibility and Screening of Included Articles
Final Search
Publication Bias
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Descriptive Analysis of Included Articles
3.2. Studies on Electrospun Lignin and Cellulose Nanofibers
3.2.1. Studies on Electrospun Cellulose Nanofibers
Precursor Solution for Electrospun Cellulose Nanofibers
Electrospinning Technique
Thermal Treatment
Influence of Fiber Morphology on Supercapacitor Performance
3.2.2. Studies on Electrospun Lignin Nanofibers
Chemical Modification of Lignin Structure
Physical Blending of Lignin
3.2.3. Studies on Electrospun Lignin/Cellulose Nanofibers
Lignin/Cellulose Acetate (CA) Blend
Lignin/Nanocellulose (NC) Blend
Components of Lignin/Cellulose-Based Supercapacitors
Electrochemical Performance of Electrospun Lignin/Cellulose Nanofibers
3.2.4. Comparison of Electrospun Cellulose, Lignin, and Lignin/Cellulose Nanofibers
3.3. Motivations
3.4. Challenges
3.5. Recommendations
4. Conclusions
- Electrospun lignin and cellulose nanofiber-based electrodes have a wide surface area, good porosity, mechanical stability, and excellent cycle stability. However, the energy density of these electrode materials is quite low compared to other carbon-based electrode materials like PAN, graphene, etc. Similarly, carbon nanofibers produced from cellulosic precursors undergo morphological collapse during carbonization due to the low thermal stability of cellulose derivatives. Deacetylation of CA prior to thermal treatment improves the thermal stability of CA-based carbon nanofibers.
- Electrospinning lignin into nanofibers is unrealistic due to the hierarchical and entangled structure of lignin. However, lignin can be easily blended with other binders to produce fine lignin-based nanofibers. Different binders influence electrospun lignin nanofiber differently.
- Electrospinning lignin and cellulose precursor solution resulted in nanofiber with phases separated into lignin and cellulose domains. However, incorporating a suitable crosslinker resolves the problem of phase separation. Resultant nanofibers exhibit thermal stability of lignin and flexibility of CA.
- Lignin/cellulose nanofiber, if explored extensively, can serve as ideal electrode materials for next-generation supercapacitors as an alternative to petroleum-based carbon nanofibers
5. Future Directions
- Statistical software like response surface methodology (RSM) and intelligent algorithms like artificial neural network (ANN) have been employed to optimize electrospinning parameters of different precursor materials. However, too many experimental runs are required to consider all electrospinning parameters at the same time. Developing optimization software that will consider all electrospinning parameters from a few experimental runs will be revolutionary, not for electrospinning lignin/cellulose nanofiber alone but for all types of fibers.
- The uniqueness of electrospun lignin/CA nanofibers is the formation of high-quality nanofibers with outstanding properties of lignin and CA combined. This property is determined to a large extent by the effectiveness of the linking unit between lignin and CA. Investigating novel crosslinkers that could ensure stable and effective crosslinking reaction as well as improve the performance of lignin/cellulose nanofiber greatly is an exotic area to explore. Interestingly, authors are currently working on this.
- To further improve the performance of electrospun lignin/cellulose nanofibers, researchers should focus on preparing core–shell and hollow nanofibers. This will improve the surface area of the prepared nanofiber as well as combine the performance of different precursor materials used. Employing other techniques—such as hydrothermal, template synthesis, in situ polymerization, etc.—to augment electrospinning technique is also a wonderful research direction for fabricating lignin/cellulose-based supercapacitors.
- A hybrid supercapacitor benefits from the performance of an EDLC (high energy density) and pseudocapacitors (high power density). Due to high surface area, high porosity, mechanical and thermal stability, excellent cycle life, and sustainable nature of lignin/cellulose nanofibers, electrospun lignin/cellulose based asymmetric supercapacitors would be an exotic research area. Researchers should focus on asymmetric supercapacitors comprising of lignin/cellulose nanofiber as an EDLC electrode and conducting polymer, MOF, or metal oxide as a pseudocapacitive electrode. Authors are also working on this.
- The development of flexible solid-state supercapacitors is taking a new dimension with the recent demand for flexible electronic devices. To meet this demand, fabricating an all-solid-state lignin/cellulose-based supercapacitor is an interesting area to explore because of its mechanical flexibility and high performance. In our next article, we will report the performance of all-solid-state supercapacitor derived from lignin/cellulose nanofiber and PVA-based electrolyte.
- The efficiency of flexible supercapacitors decreases significantly due to the distortion in the configuration of the supercapacitor after many bending cycles. Researchers need to concentrate on incorporating self-healing materials into lignin/cellulose nanofibers to allow the supercapacitor to heal itself following persistent bending cycles.
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Step | Keyword Search | Number of Documents | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Web of Science (All Databases) | Scopus | Science Direct | Total | ||
1 | Electrospinning [Title] | 6364 | 6977 | 24,920 | 38,261 |
2 | Electropun [Title] | 12,372 | 12,927 | 19,608 | 44,907 |
3 | Nanofiber [Title] | 8178 | 23,502 | 50,126 | 81,806 |
4 | Supercapacitor [Title] | 10,265 | 12,185 | 32,400 | 54,832 |
5 | EDLC [Title] | 148 | 205 | 8096 | 8449 |
6 | Cellulose [Title] | 32,776 | 34,311 | 192,250 | 259,337 |
7 | Lignin [Title] | 11,088 | 11,684 | 66,056 | 88,828 |
8 | Step 1 + 3 + 6 | 17 | 69 | 4350 | 4436 |
9 | Step 1 + 3 + 7 | 0 | 2 | 685 | 687 |
10 | Step 2 + 3 + 6 | 41 | 172 | 3925 | 4138 |
11 | Step 2 + 3 + 7 | 11 | 30 | 642 | 683 |
12 | Step 1 + 3 + 4 + 6 | 0 | 0 | 487 | 487 |
13 | Step 1 + 3 + 4 + 7 | 0 | 0 | 150 | 150 |
14 | Step 1 + 3 + 5 + 6 | 0 | 0 | 134 | 134 |
15 | Step 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 | 0 | 0 | 46 | 46 |
16 | Step 2 + 3 + 4 + 6 | 4 | 9 | 408 | 421 |
S | Step 2 + 3 + 4 + 7 | 1 | 4 | 134 | 139 |
18 | Step 2 + 3 + 5 + 6 | 1 | 2 | 91 | 94 |
19 | Step 2 + 3 + 5 + 7 | 0 | 1 | 34 | 35 |
20 | Step 8–19 | 75 | 289 | 11,086 | 11,450 |
Electronic databases | Web of Science (http://apps.webofknowledge.com/) Scopus (https://www.scopus.com/) ScienceDirect (https://www.sciencedirect.com/) |
Other sources of information | ResearchGate (https://www.researchgate.net/) Researcher (https://www.researcher-app.com/) |
Search items | Journal papers, review articles, conference proceedings, and book chapters |
Publishing language | English |
Publication period | 2010–2020 |
Method | Precursor | Remark | Shortcomings | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
Chemical Vapor Deposition | Lithium titanite |
|
| [6] |
Electrospinning | Lignin |
|
| [36] |
Pyrolysis | Bamboo |
|
| [37] |
In situ polymerization | Polyacrylonitrile solution |
|
| [34] |
Electrospinning | Cellulose acetate |
|
| [38] |
Precursor | Electrospinning Parameters | Solvent | Thermal Treatment | Fiber Diameter | Surface Area (m2/g) | Ref. | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Stabilization | Carbonization | Activation | ||||||
Alkali lignin/glycerol | Needle: Single Voltage: 20 kV Distance: 15 cm | Deionized water | Air (260 °C for 1 h at 1 °C/min) | Nitrogen gas (800 °C for 1 h at 5 °C/min) | - | 21.05 ± 9 µm | 85.67 | [58] |
Alcell Lignin/H3 PO4 (shell) | Needle: Coaxial Voltage: 40 kV Flow rate: 0.1 (1) mL/h | Ethanol | Air (200 °C for 1 h at 1 °C/min) | Nitrogen gas (900 °C) | Oxygen gas (0.5, 3.5 and 6.5%) | 1–4 µm | 2340 | [12] |
Corn stalk modified lignin/IPDI | Needle: Single Voltage: 20 kV Distance: 18 cm Flow rate: 0.8 mL/h | DMF/acetone | Air (220 °C for 4 h at 0.5 °C/min) | Nitrogen gas (1000 °C for 4 h at 4 °C/min) | KOH (25 ℃ for 12 h) | 260 nm | 2042.86 | [57] |
Lignin/PAN/BA | Needle: Single Voltage: 20 kV Distance: 18 cm Flow rate: 5 µL/min | DMF | Air (200 °C for 12 h at 0.2 °C/min) | Argon gas (1000 °C for 30 min at 0.5 °C/min) | - | 1690 ± 70 nm | - | [59] |
Kraft lignin/PVA | Needle: single Voltage: 26 kV Distance: 25 cm Flow rate: 1.2 L/h | Distilled water | Air (220 °C for 8 h at 0.05 °C/min) | Argon gas (1200 °C for 1 h at 10 °C/min) | - | ~100 nm | ~583 | [60] |
Lignin/SiO2 (core) | Spinning: Coaxial Voltage: 20 KV Distance: 20 cm Flow rate: 0.08 (0.1) mm/min | DMF/ethanol | - | Nitrogen gas (900 °C for 2 h at 5 °C/min) | - | - | 870 | [31] |
Lignin/PAN/NiCo2O4 | Spinning: Single Voltage: 8.5 KV Distance: 20 cm | DMF | Air (280 °C for 1 h at 1 °C/min) | Nitrogen gas (1000 °C at 5 °C/min) | - | ~270 ± 15 nm | [61] | |
Lignin/PAN | Spinning: Single Voltage: 25 KV Distance: 25 cm Flow rate: 4.8 mL/min | DMF | Air (250 °C for 90 min at 1 °C/min) | Nitrogen gas (800 °C for 60 min at 10 °C/min) | - | 172 nm | 675 | [62] |
Lignin-g-PAN/MnO2 | Spinning: Single Voltage: 12 KV Distance: 15 cm Flow rate: 10 μL/min | DMF | Air (250 °C for 2 h at 10 °C/min) | Nitrogen gas (1400 °C for 30 min at 10 °C/min) | - | 400–600 nm | [63] | |
Lignin/PEO/Fe3 O4 (shell) | Spinning: Coaxial Voltage: 25–30 kV Distance: 15–20 cm Flow rate: 1 (0.4) and 1 mL/min | DMF | Air (250 °C for 1 h at 0.2 °C/min) | Nitrogen gas (900 °C for 1 h at 0.3 °C/min) | - | ~400–600 nm | 281 | [50] |
Lignin/PAN | Spinning: Single Voltage: 15 kV Distance: 15 cm Flow rate: 0.3 mL/min | DMF | Air (250 °C for 1 h at 5 °C/min) | Argon gas (900 °C for 1 h at 5 °C/min) | - | - | - | [64] |
Lignin/PEO | Spinning: Single Voltage: 24–20 kV Distance: 18 cm Flow rate: 1.0–1.1 mL/min | NaNO3/NaOH | Air (250 °C at 10 °C/min) | Nitrogen + Hydrogen gas (1400 °C for 30 min) | - | 188 ± 38 nm | - | [16] |
Lignin/PVA/MnO2 | Spinning: Single Voltage: 26 kV Distance: 25 cm Flow rate: 1.2 mL/min | Distilled water | Air (220 °C for 8 h) | Argon gas (1200 °C for 60 min) | - | ~200 nm | 583 | [65] |
Lignin/PMMA (core) | Spinning: Coaxial Voltage: 24 kV Distance: 25 cm Flow rate: 7.1 (5.3) µL/min | DMF/ethanol | Air (300 °C at 1 °C/min) | Nitrogen gas (800 °C for 2 h) | HF and HNO3 at 25 °C for 5 h | 125–200 nm | 659 | [66] |
Lignin/PVP/Mg(NO3)2·6H2O | Spinning: Single Voltage: 15 kV Distance: 20 cm Flow rate: 0.2 mL/min | DMF | Air (350 °C for 4 h at 1 °C/min) | Nitrogen gas (800 °C for 1 h at 3 °C/min) | 6 mol/L HCl | 124 nm | 1140 | [14] |
Lignin/Plant protein | Spinning: Single Voltage: 20 kV Distance: 20 cm Flow rate: 1 mL/h | Acetic acid/DMF | Air (250 °C for 3 h at 0.5 °C/min) | Nitrogen/Argon = 5/95 (900 °C for 2 h at 5 °C/min) | Argon/CO2 = 95/5 (850 °C for 3 h) | 0.85 ± 0.24 μm | 1113.16 | [67] |
Lignin/PVA | Spinning: Single Voltage: 20 kV Distance: 15 cm Flow rate: 0.8 mL/h | Deionized water | Air (250 °C for 1 h at 2 °C/min) | Helium gas (1000 °C for 1 h at 5 °C/min) | Nitrogen and CO2 (800 °C for 30 min at 130 °C/min) | 175 ± 25.5 nm | 2170 | [68] |
GN modified lignin/PAN | Spinning: Single Voltage: 15 kV Distance: 15 cm Flow rate: 1 mL/h | DMF | Air (260 °C for 3 h at 0.5 °C/min) | Helium gas (1400 °C for 1 h at 5 °C/min) | KOH (ultrasonication for 1 h) | - | 2439 | [69] |
Lignin/PAN/Pitch/Zn | - | DMF/THF | Air (280 °C for 1 h) | Inert atmosphere (800 °C for 1 h at 5 °C/min) | - | 370 nm | 1194 | [70] |
Lignin/PAN | Spinning: Single Voltage: 20 kV Distance: 18 cm Flow rate: 1 mL/h | DMF | Air (200 °C for 1 h at 0.2 °C/min) | Nitrogen gas (1000 °C for 1 h at 5 °C/min) | KOH (dispersion for 1 h) Inert atmosphere (600 °C for 1 h) | 411.7 ± 55.9 nm | 2313 | [71] |
Lignin/PAN/PANI/urea | Spinning: Single Voltage: 15 kV Distance: 15 cm Flow rate: 0.5 mL/h | DMF | Air (260 °C for 1 h at 1 °C/min) | Nitrogen gas (800 °C for 2 h at 5 °C/min) | - | 150–250 nm | 483.1 | [72] |
Lignin/PEO/NCC | Spinning: Single Voltage: 20 kV Distance: 25 cm | DMF | Chromatography oven (250 °C for 1 h at 5 °C/min) | Nitrogen gas (800, 900 and 1000 °C for 1 h at 1, 5 and 10 °C/min) | - | 406 ± 51 nm | - | [48] |
Lignin/PAN | Spinning: Single Voltage: 19 kV Distance: 16 cm Flow rate: 0.8 mL/h | DMF | Air (280 °C for 1 h at 2 °C/min) | Nitrogen gas (1000 °C for 1 h at 5 °C/min) | CO2 (50 mL/min) once carbonization temp reaches 1000 °C | 79.35 ± 8.58 nm | 2543 | [73] |
Lignin Type | Physical Blending | Electrode Type | Electrolyte | Specific Capacitance (F/g) | Energy Density (Wh/kg) | Power Density (kW/kg) | Capacitance Retention | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Kraft lignin | Blending with PVA | Freestanding | 6 M KOH | 64 | 5.67 | 0.94 | 90% after 6000 cycles at 2 A/g | [60] |
Alkali lignin | Blending with PVA + MnO2 | Freestanding | 1.0 M LiPF6 | 83.3 | 84.3 | 5.72 | 92% after 10,000 cycles at 2 A/g | [65] |
Lignin | Blending with PEO | Freestanding | EMIMBF4 | 133 | 86.6 | 114 | 94% after 10,000 cycles at 4 A/g | [31] |
Alkali lignin | Blending with PAN + NiCo2O4 | Freestanding | PVA-KOH | 134.3 | 47.75 | 0.799 | 74.22% after 5000 cycle at 50 mA/cm2 | [61] |
Sawdust lignin | Blending with PMMA | Coating | 6 M KOH | 406 | 11.5 | 0.451 | 95% after 10,000 cycles at 10 A/g | [66] |
Alkali lignin | Blending with PVP + Mg(NO3)2·6H2O | Freestanding | 6 M KOH | 248 | - | - | 97% after 1000 cycles at 20 A/g | [14] |
Enzymatic hydrolysis lignin | Blending with PAN | Freestanding | 6 M KOH | 305.7 | - | - | 92% after 1000 cycles at 1 A/g | [62] |
Alkali lignin | Blending with PAN | Freestanding | PVA–KOH | 129.23 | 2.63 | 4.49 | 92% after 1000 cycles | [64] |
Lignin | Blending with plant protein (hordein/zein = 50/50, w/w) | Coating | 6 M KOH | 410 | - | - | 95% after 3000 cycles | [67] |
Alkali lignin | Blending with PVA | Freestanding | Pyr14TFSI/PC/EC | 88 | 38 | 1.666 | 87% through 1000 cycles | [68] |
Methanol soluble lignin (isolated from kraft lignin) | Grafting with PAN + MnO2 | Freestanding | 1 M Na2SO4 | 171.6 | 6 | 160 | 99 after 1000 cycles | [63] |
Acetic acid lignin | Blending with PEO + Fe(acac)3 | Coating | 1 M Na2SO3 | 121 | 90% after 1000 cycles | [50] | ||
Cornstalk residues lignin | Blending with PAN + GN | Coating | 6 M KOH | 267.32 | 9.28 | 0.493 | 96.7% after 1000 cycles | [69] |
Hardwood lignin | Blending with PAN + Pitch + Zn | Freestanding | 6 M KOH | 165 | 22 | 0.4 | 88% after 3000 cycles | [70] |
Organosolv lignin (butyric anhydride esterified) | Blending with PAN | Coating | 6 M KOH | 320 | 17.92 | 0.8 | 94.5% after 5000 cycles | [71] |
Lignin | Blending with PANI + PANI + urea | Freestanding | 1 M H2SO4 | 199.5 | - | - | 88% after 1000 cycles at 4 A/g | [72] |
Alkali Kraft lignin | Blending with PAN | Freestanding | Pyr14TFSI:PC:EC | 128 | 59 | 15 | - | [73] |
Carbon Materials | Electrode System/Electrolyte Type | Current Density or Scan Rate (A g−1) | Specific Capacitance (F g−1) | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
PEDOT/Lignin biopolymer | 3E/0.1 M HClO4 | 1 | 170.4 | [93] |
Corncob residue | 3E/6 M KOH | 1 | 120 | [94] |
Pongam seed shells | 3E/1 M KOH | 1 | 94 | [95] |
Lignin-based hydrogel | 1 M KOH | 0.5 | 129.3 | [64] |
Wood | 3E/6 M KOH | 0.2 | 246 | [96] |
Waste cotton | 2E/1 M TEABF4/AN | 1 | 87 | [97] |
Silk | 2E/1 M H2SO4 | 0.1 | 264 | [98] |
Willow catkin | 3E/6 M KOH | 1 | 292 | [99] |
Glucose-derived carbon | 3E/1 M H2SO4 | 0.2 | 206 | [100] |
KL/CA (ECH) CNFs | 2E/6 M KOH | 0.1 | 346.6 | [15] |
KL/CA (H3PO4) CNFs | 2E/6 M KOH | 0.1 | 320.3 | [9] |
KL/CA (IPDI) CNFs | 2E/6 M KOH | 0.1 | 174.62 | [83] |
Precursor Material | Cross-Linker | Pore Diameter (nm) | Fiber Diameter (nm) | Specific Capacitance (Fg−1) | Energy Density (Whkg−1) | Power Density (kWkg−1) | Capacitance Retention (% at 5 A g−1) | Surface Area (m2 g−1) | Carbon Yield (%) | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lignin/CA | ECH | 2.3345 | 370 ± 24 | 346.6 | 31.5 | 400 | 77.3 | 837.4 | 32 | [15] |
Lignin/CA | H3PO4 | 2.17 | 340 ± 32 | 320.3 | 30.2 | 400 | 70.6 | 1061.7 | 39.7 | [9] |
Lignin/CA | IPDI | 2.0259 | 760 ± 32 | 174.62 | 6.07 | 450 | 90 | 1013.8 | 25.45 | [83] |
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Adam, A.A.; Ojur Dennis, J.; Al-Hadeethi, Y.; Mkawi, E.M.; Abubakar Abdulkadir, B.; Usman, F.; Mudassir Hassan, Y.; Wadi, I.A.; Sani, M. State of the Art and New Directions on Electrospun Lignin/Cellulose Nanofibers for Supercapacitor Application: A Systematic Literature Review. Polymers 2020, 12, 2884. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12122884
Adam AA, Ojur Dennis J, Al-Hadeethi Y, Mkawi EM, Abubakar Abdulkadir B, Usman F, Mudassir Hassan Y, Wadi IA, Sani M. State of the Art and New Directions on Electrospun Lignin/Cellulose Nanofibers for Supercapacitor Application: A Systematic Literature Review. Polymers. 2020; 12(12):2884. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12122884
Chicago/Turabian StyleAdam, Abdullahi Abbas, John Ojur Dennis, Yas Al-Hadeethi, E. M. Mkawi, Bashir Abubakar Abdulkadir, Fahad Usman, Yarima Mudassir Hassan, I. A. Wadi, and Mustapha Sani. 2020. "State of the Art and New Directions on Electrospun Lignin/Cellulose Nanofibers for Supercapacitor Application: A Systematic Literature Review" Polymers 12, no. 12: 2884. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12122884