Nutrients and Risk of Colon Cancer
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Cases
2.2. Controls
2.3. Data collection
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Results
Cases | Controls | p-value for Chisq | |||
No. | % | No. | % | ||
Age | |||||
20–49 | 191 | 11.0 | 838 | 27.1 | <0.0001 |
50–59 | 317 | 18.3 | 605 | 19.5 | |
60–69 | 747 | 43.2 | 1043 | 33.7 | |
70–76 | 476 | 27.5 | 611 | 19.7 | |
Education (years) | |||||
≤8 | 319 | 18.4 | 471 | 15.2 | <0.0001 |
9–13 | 989 | 57.1 | 1689 | 54.5 | |
≥14 | 388 | 22.4 | 900 | 29.1 | |
Family income* | |||||
Low family income | 314 | 18.1 | 584 | 18.8 | 0.51 |
Lower-middle family income | 317 | 18.3 | 585 | 18.9 | |
Upper-middle family income | 414 | 23.9 | 779 | 25.2 | |
High family income | 255 | 14.7 | 440 | 14.2 | |
Not reported | 431 | 24.9 | 709 | 22.9 | |
Body mass index (kg/m2) | |||||
<25 | 632 | 36.5 | 1461 | 47.2 | <0.0001 |
25–<30 | 726 | 42.0 | 1176 | 38.0 | |
≥30 | 367 | 21.2 | 447 | 14.4 | |
Pack-years of smoking | |||||
Never smoked | 565 | 32.6 | 1123 | 36.3 | <0.0001 |
≤10 | 328 | 19.0 | 705 | 22.8 | |
11–20 | 289 | 16.7 | 470 | 15.2 | |
21–30 | 197 | 11.4 | 302 | 9.8 | |
>30 | 325 | 18.8 | 447 | 14.4 | |
Alcohol drinking (g/d) | |||||
Never drank | 632 | 36.5 | 1148 | 37.1 | <0.0001 |
≤1.83 | 221 | 12.8 | 450 | 14.5 | |
1.84–10.69 | 327 | 18.9 | 683 | 22.1 | |
≥10.70 | 522 | 30.2 | 752 | 24.3 | |
Moderate activity (h/month) | |||||
≤4.63 | 353 | 20.5 | 676 | 21.8 | 0.04 |
4.64–11.83 | 341 | 19.8 | 675 | 21.8 | |
11.84–23.96 | 376 | 21.8 | 676 | 21.8 | |
≥23.97 | 384 | 22.3 | 674 | 21.8 | |
Not reported | 270 | 12.7 | 396 | 12.8 | |
Strenuous activity (h/month) | |||||
Never | 729 | 42.3 | 1146 | 37.0 | 0.0001 |
≤0.19 | 103 | 6.0 | 162 | 5.2 | |
0.20–3.68 | 301 | 17.5 | 644 | 20.8 | |
≥3.69 | 299 | 17.3 | 647 | 20.9 | |
Not reported | 292 | 16.9 | 498 | 16.1 |
Nutrients | Quartiles | P-value | |||
(g/wk) | I (low) | II | III | IV (high) | for trend |
Total protein | 328/769 | 449/773 | 449/775 | 503/773 | |
OR (95% CI) | 1.0 (ref.) | 1.13 (0.91–1.40) | 0.92 (0.71–1.21) | 0.92 (0.65–1.30) | 0.38 |
Total fat | 308/772 | 440/769 | 467/775 | 514/774 | |
OR (95% CI) | 1.0 (ref.) | 1.22 (0.99–1.51) | 1.18 (0.91–1.54) | 1.21 (0.86–1.69) | 0.40 |
Saturated fat | 310/769 | 424/772 | 466/774 | 529/775 | |
OR (95% CI) | 1.0 (ref.) | 1.21 (0.98–1.50) | 1.22 (0.96–1.56) | 1.26 (0.93–1.70) | 0.20 |
Monounsaturated fat | 314/772 | 424/770 | 478/774 | 513/774 | |
OR (95% CI) | 1.0 (ref.) | 1.23 (0.99–1.52) | 1.29 (0.99–1.66) | 1.31 (0.95–1.82) | 0.14 |
Polyunsaturated fat | 333/772 | 407/771 | 465/773 | 524/774 | |
OR (95% CI) | 1.0 (ref.) | 1.15 (0.93–1.41) | 1.22 (0.97–1.55) | 1.36 (1.02–1.80) | 0.04 |
Trans–fat | 318/773 | 397/770 | 487/773 | 526/774 | |
OR (95% CI) | 1.0 (ref.) | 1.09 (0.89–1.33) | 1.29 (1.05–1.59) | 1.37 (1.10–1.71) | 0.002 |
Cholesterol (mg/wk) | 316/773 | 401/772 | 489/772 | 523/773 | |
OR (95% CI) | 1.0 (ref.) | 1.17 (0.95–1.43) | 1.31 (1.05–1.63) | 1.42 (1.10–1.84) | 0.006 |
Total carbohydrates | 347/770 | 417/772 | 460/775 | 505/773 | |
OR (95% CI) | 1.0 (ref.) | 1.07 (0.86–1.34) | 1.14 (0.84–1.54) | 1.15 (0.78–1.71) | 0.49 |
Sucrose | 307/771 | 407/773 | 454/772 | 561/774 | |
OR (95% CI) | 1.0 (ref.) | 1.18 (0.97–1.44) | 1.30 (1.05–1.61) | 1.61 (1.27–2.04) | <0.0001 |
Lactose | 384/771 | 427/772 | 489/773 | 729/774 | |
OR (95% CI) | 1.0 (ref.) | 1.09 (0.90–1.31) | 1.09 (0.90–1.32) | 1.01 (0.83–1.24) | 0.93 |
Maltose | 334/772 | 403/773 | 490/770 | 502/775 | |
OR (95% CI) | 1.0 (ref.) | 1.13 (0.92–1.39) | 1.33 (1.07–1.66) | 1.24 (0.96–1.59) | 0.06 |
Glucose | 386/772 | 400/774 | 467/772 | 476/772 | |
OR (95% CI) | 1.0 (ref.) | 1.00 (0.82–1.22) | 1.15 (0.93–1.42) | 1.22 (0.97–1.54) | 0.05 |
Fructose | 387/772 | 415/772 | 455/774 | 472/772 | |
OR (95% CI) | 1.0 (ref.) | 1.06 (0.88–1.29) | 1.16 (0.94–1.43) | 1.25 (0.99–1.57) | 0.06 |
Galactose | 314/772 | 486/770 | 452/774 | 477/774 | |
OR (95% CI) | 1.0 (ref.) | 1.39 (1.15–1.69) | 1.21 (0.99–1.48) | 1.20 (0.97–1.50) | 0.41 |
Nutrients | Quartiles | P-value | |||
(g/wk) | I (low) | II | III | IV (high) | for trend |
Total protein | 138/769 | 183/773 | 199/775 | 217/773 | |
OR (95% CI) | 1.0 (ref.) | 1.14 (0.85–1.54) | 1.10 (0.76–1.58) | 1.16 (0.73–1.86) | 0.65 |
Total fat | 123/772 | 191/769 | 205/775 | 218/774 | |
OR (95% CI) | 1.0 (ref.) | 1.35 (1.00–1.81) | 1.36 (0.95–1.96) | 1.37 (0.87–2.18) | 0.26 |
Saturated fat | 134/769 | 161/772 | 213/774 | 229/775 | |
OR (95% CI) | 1.0 (ref.) | 1.11 (0.83–1.48) | 1.37 (0.98–1.90) | 1.37 (0.91–2.07) | 0.09 |
Monounsaturated fat | 131/772 | 185/770 | 205/774 | 216/774 | |
OR (95% CI) | 1.0 (ref.) | 1.25 (0.93–1.67) | 1.30 (0.91–1.85) | 1.26 (0.81–1.98) | 0.37 |
Polyunsaturated fat | 133/772 | 172/771 | 207/773 | 225/774 | |
OR (95% CI) | 1.0 (ref.) | 1.20 (0.91–1.60) | 1.38 (1.00–1.90) | 1.47 (1.00–2.16) | 0.05 |
Trans-fat | 122/773 | 167/770 | 217/773 | 231/774 | |
OR (95% CI) | 1.0 (ref.) | 1.16 (0.88–1.52) | 1.45 (1.09–1.92) | 1.48 (1.09–2.01) | 0.005 |
Cholesterol (mg/wk) | 133/773 | 164/772 | 215/772 | 225/773 | |
OR (95% CI) | 1.0 (ref.) | 1.12 (0.84–1.48) | 1.38 (1.02–1.86) | 1.50 (1.06–2.13) | 0.01 |
Total carbohydrates | 145/770 | 178/772 | 207/775 | 207/773 | |
OR (95% CI) | 1.0 (ref.) | 1.05 (0.77–1.42) | 1.14 (0.76–1.72) | 1.06 (0.62–1.80) | 0.82 |
Sucrose | 127/771 | 172/773 | 194/772 | 244/774 | |
OR (95% CI) | 1.0 (ref.) | 1.19 (0.90–1.56) | 1.32 (0.99–1.77) | 1.67 (1.22–2.29) | 0.001 |
Lactose | 146/771 | 173/772 | 212/773 | 206/774 | |
OR (95% CI) | 1.0 (ref.) | 1.24 (0.95–1.61) | 1.29 (0.99–1.68) | 1.36 (1.04–1.79) | 0.04 |
Maltose | 142/772 | 175/773 | 216/770 | 204/775 | |
OR (95% CI) | 1.0 (ref.) | 1.16 (0.88–1.52) | 1.31 (0.98–1.76) | 1.15 (0.82–1.62) | 0.39 |
Glucose | 163/772 | 176/774 | 199/772 | 199/772 | |
OR (95% CI) | 1.0 (ref.) | 1.00 (0.76–1.29) | 1.09 (0.82–1.45) | 1.13 (0.82–1.55) | 0.36 |
Fructose | 161/772 | 185/772 | 195/774 | 196/772 | |
OR (95% CI) | 1.0 (ref.) | 1.09 (0.84–1.42) | 1.13 (0.84–1.50) | 1.16 (0.85–1.59) | 0.40 |
Galactose | 130/772 | 192/770 | 196/774 | 219/774 | |
OR (95% CI) | 1.0 (ref.) | 1.33 (1.02–1.74) | 1.24 (0.94–1.64) | 1.36 (1.02–1.83) | 0.10 |
Nutrients | Quartiles | P-value | |||
(g/wk) | I (low) | II | III | IV (high) | for trend |
Total protein | 190/769 | 266/773 | 250/775 | 286/773 | |
OR (95% CI) | 1.0 (ref.) | 1.09 (0.84–1.40) | 0.79 (0.57–1.10) | 0.74 (0.49–1.13) | 0.06 |
Total fat | 185/772 | 249/769 | 262/775 | 296/774 | |
OR (95% CI) | 1.0 (ref.) | 1.143 (0.87–1.46) | 1.06 (0.77–1.47) | 1.07 (0.71–1.62) | 0.86 |
Saturated fat | 176/769 | 263/772 | 253/774 | 300/775 | |
OR (95% CI) | 1.0 (ref.) | 1.29 (1.00–1.67) | 1.12 (0.83–1.51) | 1.16 (0.80–1.69) | 0.72 |
Monounsaturated fat | 183/772 | 239/770 | 273/774 | 297/774 | |
OR (95% CI) | 1.0 (ref.) | 1.20 (0.92–1.55) | 1.26 (0.92–1.73) | 1.32 (0.89–1.96) | 0.19 |
Polyunsaturated fat | 200/772 | 235/771 | 258/773 | 299/774 | |
OR (95% CI) | 1.0 (ref.) | 1.12 (0.87–1.44) | 1.11 (0.83–1.47) | 1.26 (0.90–1.78) | 0.23 |
Trans–fat | 196/773 | 230/770 | 270/773 | 295/774 | |
OR (95% CI) | 1.0 (ref.) | 1.06 (0.83–1.35) | 1.21 (0.94–1.55) | 1.30 (0.99–1.70) | 0.03 |
Cholesterol (mg/wk) | 183/773 | 237/772 | 274/772 | 298/773 | |
OR (95% CI) | 1.0 (ref.) | 1.19 (0.93–1.53) | 1.24 (0.95–1.63) | 1.35 (0.99–1.85) | 0.07 |
Total carbohydrates | 202/770 | 239/772 | 253/775 | 298/773 | |
OR (95% CI) | 1.0 (ref.) | 1.10 (0.84–1.45) | 1.12 (0.77–1.61) | 1.23 (0.76–1.97) | 0.44 |
Sucrose | 180/771 | 235/773 | 260/772 | 317/774 | |
OR (95% CI) | 1.0 (ref.) | 1.19 (0.93–1.52) | 1.28 (0.99–1.66) | 1.58 (1.18–2.10) | 0.002 |
Lactose | 238/771 | 254/772 | 277/773 | 223/774 | |
OR (95% CI) | 1.0 (ref.) | 1.01 (0.81–1.27) | 0.98 (0.78–1.24) | 0.81 (0.63–1.03) | 0.09 |
Maltose | 192/772 | 228/773 | 274/770 | 298/775 | |
OR (95% CI) | 1.0 (ref.) | 1.10 (0.86–1.41) | 1.33 (1.02–1.73) | 1.30 (0.96–1.76) | 0.05 |
Glucose | 223/772 | 224/774 | 268/772 | 277/772 | |
OR (95% CI) | 1.0 (ref.) | 0.97 (0.76–1.23) | 1.21 (0.94–1.56) | 1.31 (0.99–1.73) | 0.02 |
Fructose | 226/772 | 230/772 | 260/774 | 276/772 | |
OR (95% CI) | 1.0 (ref.) | 1.03 (0.81–1.30) | 1.20 (0.93–1.54) | 1.31 (0.99–1.73) | 0.03 |
Galactose | 184/772 | 294/770 | 256/774 | 258/774 | |
OR (95% CI) | 1.0 (ref.) | 1.45 (1.14–1.83) | 1.19 (0.93–1.53) | 1.11 (0.85–1.45) | 0.93 |
3.2. Discussion
4. Conclusions
Abbreviations
BMI | body mass index |
OR | odds ratio |
CI | confidence interval |
DCC | distal colon cancer |
PCC | proximal colon cancer |
FFQ | food frequency questionnaire |
IGF-I | insulin-like growth factor-I |
JPHC | Japan Public Health-Center cohort study |
NECSS | National Enhanced Cancer Surveillance System |
Acknowledgements
Nutrients (g/wk) | Quartiles | |||
I (low) | II | III | IV (high) | |
Total proteins | ≤356.47 | 356.48–456.82 | 456.83–575.25 | ≥575.26 |
Total fats | ≤313.77 | 313.78–422.16 | 422.17–543.23 | ≥543.24 |
Saturated fat | ≤115.77 | 115.78–157.81 | 157.82–205.93 | ≥205.94 |
Monounsaturated fat | ≤109.48 | 109.49–148.55 | 148.56–194.37 | ≥194.38 |
Polyunsaturated fat | ≤55.59 | 55.60–74.56 | 74.57–96.89 | ≥96.90 |
Trans–fat | ≤6.86 | 6.87–10.93 | 10.94–19.07 | ≥19.08 |
Cholesterol (mg/wk) | ≤966.26 | 926.27–1412.75 | 1412.76–1880.27 | ≥1880.28 |
Total carbohydrates | 1406.49 | 1406.50–1790.47 | 1790.48–2253.18 | ≥2253.19 |
Sucrose | ≤150.76 | 150.77–214.93 | 214.94–283.79 | ≥283.80 |
Lactose | ≤33.02 | 33.03–93.94 | 93.95–196.50 | ≥196.51 |
Maltose | ≤7.56 | 7.57–10.52 | 10.53–14.41 | ≥14.42 |
Glucose | ≤86.46 | 86.47–123.40 | 123.41–176.90 | ≥176.91 |
Fructose | ≤90.88 | 90.89–133.97 | 133.98–194.10 | ≥194.11 |
Galactose | ≤0.47 | 0.48–0.75 | 0.76–1.11 | ≥1.12 |
References
- Parkin, D.M.; Bray, F.; Ferlay, J.; Pisani, P. Global cancer statistics, 2002. CA Cancer J. Clin. 2005, 55, 74–108. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Canadian Cancer Society/National Cancer Institute of Canada, Canadian Cancer Statistics 2008; Canadian Cancer Society: Toronto, Canada, 2008.
- Norat, T.; Bingham, S.; Ferrari, P.; Slimani, N.; Jenab, M.; Mazuir, M.; Overvad, K.; Olsen, A.; Tjønneland, A.; Clavel, F.; Boutron-Ruault, M.C.; Kesse, E. Meat, fish, and colorectal cancer risk: the European prospective investigation into cancer and nutrition. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 2005, 97, 906–916. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sandhu, M.S.; White, I.R.; McPherson, K. Systematic review of the prospective cohort studies on meat consumption and colorectal cancer risk: a meta-analytical approach. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 2001, 10, 439–446. [Google Scholar]
- Norat, T.; Lukanova, A.; Ferrari, P.; Riboli, E. Meat consumption and colorectal cancer risk: dose-response meta-analysis of epidemiological studies. Int. J. Cancer 2002, 98, 241–256. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Joshi, A.D.; Corral, R.; Siegmund, K.D.; Haile, R.W.; Le Marchand, L.; Martínez, M.E.; Ahnen, D.J.; Sandler, R.S.; Lance, P.; Stern, M.C. Red meat and poultry intake, polymorphisms in the nucleotide excision repair and mismatch repair pathways and colorectal cancer risk. Carcinogenesis 2009, 30, 472–479. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- World Cancer Research Fund and American Institute for Cancer Research, Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Cancer: a Global Perspective; American Institute for Cancer Research: Washington, DC, USA, 2007; pp. 280–288.
- Kono, S. Secular trend of colon cancer incidence and mortality in relation to fat and meat intake in Japan. Eur. J. Cancer Prev. 2004, 13, 127–132. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ravasco, P.; Monteiro-Grillo, I.; Marqués Vidal, P.; Camilo, M.E. Nutritional risks and colorectal cancer in a Portuguese population. Nutr. Hosp. 2005, 20, 165–172. [Google Scholar]
- West, D.W.; Slattery, M.L.; Robison, L.M.; Schuman, K.L.; Ford, H.; Mahoney, A.W.; Lyon, J.L.; Sorensen, A.W. Dietary intake and colon cancer: sex- and anatomic site-specific associations. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1989, 130, 883–894. [Google Scholar]
- Slattery, M.L.; Benson, J.; Ma, K.N.; Schaffer, D.; Potter, J.D. Trans-fatty acids and colon cancer. Nutr. Cancer 2001, 39, 170–175. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Franceschi, S.; La Vecchia, C.; Russo, A.; Favero, A.; Negri, E.; Conti, E.; Montella, M.; Filiberti, R.; Amadori, D.; Decarli, A. Macronutrient intake and risk of colorectal cancer in Italy. Int. J. Cancer. 1998, 76, 321–324. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Slattery, M.L.; Potter, J.D.; Duncan, D.M.; Berry, T.D. Dietary fats and colon cancer: assessment of risk associated with specific fatty acids. Int. J. Cancer. 1997, 73, 670–677. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Terry, P.; Bergkvist, L.; Holmberg, L.; Wolk, A. No association between fat and fatty acids intake and risk of colorectal cancer. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 2001, 10, 913–914. [Google Scholar]
- Pietinen, P.; Malila, N.; Virtanen, M.; Hartman, T.J.; Tangrea, J.A.; Albanes, D.; Virtamo, J. Diet and risk of colorectal cancer in a cohort of Finnish men. Cancer Causes Control 1999, 10, 387–396. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lin, J.; Zhang, S.M.; Cook, N.R.; Lee, I.M.; Buring, J.E. Dietary fat and fatty acids and risk of colorectal cancer in women. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2004, 160, 1011–1022. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Järvinen, R.; Knekt, P.; Hakulinen, T.; Rissanen, H.; Heliövaara, M. Dietary fat, cholesterol and colorectal cancer in a prospective study. Br. J. Cancer 2001, 85, 357–361. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kato, I.; Akhmedkhanov, A.; Koenig, K.; Toniolo, P.G.; Shore, R.E.; Riboli, E. Prospective study of diet and female colorectal cancer: the New York University Women's Health Study. Nutr. Cancer 1997, 28, 276–281. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Oba, S.; Shimizu, N.; Nagata, C.; Shimizu, H.; Kametani, M.; Takeyama, N.; Ohnuma, T.; Matsushita, S. The relationship between the consumption of meat, fat, and coffee and the risk of colon cancer: a prospective study in Japan. Cancer Lett. 2006, 244, 260–267. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Beresford, S.A.; Johnson, K.C.; Ritenbaugh, C.; Lasser, N.L.; Snetselaar, L.G.; Black, H.R.; Anderson, G.L.; Assaf, A.R.; Bassford, T.; Bowen, D.; et al. Low-fat dietary pattern and risk of colorectal cancer: the Women's Health Initiative Randomized Controlled Dietary Modification Trial. JAMA 2006, 295, 643–654. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Johnson, I.T.; Lund, E.K. Review article: nutrition, obesity and colorectal cancer. Aliment Pharmacol. Ther. 2007, 26, 161–181. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lee, S.A.; Shu, X.O.; Yang, G.; Li, H.; Gao, Y.T.; Zheng, W. Animal origin foods and colorectal cancer risk: a report from the Shanghai Women's Health Study. Nutr. Cancer 2009, 61, 194–205. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Satia-Abouta, J.; Galanko, J.A.; Potter, J.D.; Ammerman, A.; Martin, C.F.; Sandler, R.S. Association of total energy and macronutrients with colon cancer risk in African Americans and White: results from the North Carolina colon cancer study. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2003, 158, 951–962. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Higginbotham, S.; Zhang, Z.F.; Lee, I.M.; Cook, N.R.; Giovannucci, E.; Buring, J.E.; Liu, S. Women's Health Study. Dietary glycemic load and risk of colorectal cancer in the Women's Health Study. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 2004, 96, 229–233. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Howarth, N.C.; Murphy, S.P.; Wilkens, L.R.; Henderson, B.E.; Kolonel, L.N. The association of glycemic load and carbohydrate intake with colorectal cancer risk in the Multiethnic Cohort Study. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2008, 88, 1074–1082. [Google Scholar]
- Oh, K.; Willett, W.C.; Fuchs, C.S.; Giovannucci, E.L. Glycemic index, glycemic load, and carbohydrate intake in relation to risk of distal colorectal adenoma in women. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 2004, 13, 1192–1198. [Google Scholar]
- Kabat, G.C.; Shikany, J.M.; Beresford, S.A.; Caan, B.; Neuhouser, M.L.; Tinker, L.F.; Rohan, T.E. Dietary carbohydrate, glycemic index, and glycemic load in relation to colorectal cancer risk in the Women's Health Initiative. Cancer Causes Control 2008, 19, 1291–1298. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Larsson, S.C.; Giovannucci, E.; Wolk, A. Dietary carbohydrate, glycemic index, and glycemic load in relation to risk of colorectal cancer in women. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2007, 165, 256–261. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Johnson, K.C.; Mao, Y.; Argo, J.; Dubois, S.; Semenciw, R.; Lava, J. The Canadian Cancer Registries Epidemiology Reserch Group. The National Enhanced Cancer Surveillance System: a case-control approach to environmental-related cancer surveillance in Canada. Environmetrics 1998, 9, 495–504. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Percy, C.; Holten, V.V.; Muir, C. International Classification of Diseases for Oncology, 2nd ed.; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 1990. [Google Scholar]
- Block, G.; Hartman, A.M.; Naughton, D. A reduced dietary questionnaire: development and validation. Epidemiology 1990, 1, 58–64. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Willett, W.C. Nutritional Epidemiology, 2nd ed.; Oxford University Press: New York, NY, USA, 1998. [Google Scholar]
- Health Canada, Canadian Nutrient File Compilation of Canadian Food Composition Data; Nutrition Research Division and Office of Information Management Technology Health Products and Food Branch, Health Canada: Ottawa, Canada, 2005.
- World Health Organization, Obesity: Preventing and Managing the Global Epidemic; World Health Organization Technical Report Series, No. 894; Report of a WHO consultation; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2000.
- Hu, J.; La Vecchia, C.; DesMeules, M.; Negri, E.; Mery, L.; Canadian Cancer Registries Epidemiology Research Group. Meat and fish consumption and cancer in Canada. Nutr. Cancer 2008, 60, 313–324. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hu, J.; Morrison, H.; Mery, L.; Desmeules, M.; Macleod, M.; Canadian Cancer Registries Epidemiology Research Group. Diet and vitamin or mineral supplementation and risk of colon cancer by subsite in Canada. Eur. J. Cancer Prev. 2007, 16, 275–291. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- SAS Institute Inc, The SAS System for Windows Release 9.01; SAS Institute: Carey, NC, USA, 2002.
- Chiu, B.C.; Ji, B.T.; Dai, Q.; Gridley, G.; McLaughlin, J.K.; Gao, Y.T.; Fraumeni, J.F., Jr.; Chow, W.H. Dietary factors and risk of colon cancer in Shanghai, China. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 2003, 12, 201–208. [Google Scholar]
- Chepyala, P.; Aduli, F.; Olden, K.W. Primary prevention of colorectal cancer: an evidence-based approach. J. Ark. Med. Soc. 2008, 104, 290–292. [Google Scholar]
- Alexander, D.D.; Cushing, C.A.; Lowe, K.A.; Sceurman, B.; Roberts, M.A. Meta-analysis of animal fat or animal protein intake and colorectal cancer. Am. J. Clin Nutr. 2009, 89, 1402–1409. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Willet, W.C.; Stampfer, M.J.; Colditz, G.A.; Rosner, B.A.; Speizer, F.E. Relation of meat, fat, and fiber intake to the risk of colon cancer in a pprospective study among women. N. Engl. J. Med. 1990, 323, 1664–1672. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Giovannucci, E.; Goldin, B. The role of fat, fatty acids, and total energy intake in the etiology of human colon cancer. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1997, 66, 1564S–1571S. [Google Scholar]
- Theodoratou, E.; McNeill, G.; Cetnarskyj, R.; Farrington, S.M.; Tenesa, A.; Barnetson, R.; Porteous, M.; Dunlop, M.; Campbell, H. Dietary fatty acids and colorectal cancer: a case-control study. Am J. Epidemiol. 2007, 166, 181–195. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mozaffarian, D.; Pischon, T.; Hankinson, S.E.; Rifai, N.; Joshipura, K.; Willett, W.C.; Rimm, E.B. Dietary intake of trans fatty acids and systemic inflammation in women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2004, 79, 606–612. [Google Scholar]
- Lopez-Garcia, E.; Schulze, M.B.; Meigs, J.; Manson, J.E.; Rifai, N.; Stampfer, M.J.; Willett, W.C.; Hu, F.B. Consumption of trans fatty acids is related to plasma biomarkers of inflammation and endothelial dysfunction. J. Nutr. 2005, 135, 562–566. [Google Scholar]
- Itzkowitz, S.H.; Yio, X. Inflammation and cancer IV. Colorectal cancer in inflammatory bowel disease: the role of inflammation. Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 2004, 287, G7–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chapkin, R.S.; Davidson, L.A.; Ly, L.; Weeks, B.R.; Lupton, J.R.; McMurray, D.N. Immunomodulatory effects of (n-3) fatty acids: putative link to inflammation and colon cancer. J. Nutr. 2007, 137, 200S–204S. [Google Scholar]
- Lee, Y.J.; Lee, H.R.; Nam, C.M.; Hwang, U.K.; Jee, S.H. White blood cell count and the risk of colon cancer. Yonsei Med. J. 2006, 47, 646–656. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Karin, M.; Greten, F.R. NF-kappaB: linking inflammation and immunity to cancer development and progression. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 2005, 5, 749–759. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- De Stefani, E.; Mendilaharsu, M.; Deneo-Pellegrini, H.; Ronco, A. Influence of dietary levels of fat, cholesterol, and calcium on colorectal cancer. Nutr. Cancer 1997, 29, 83–89. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sandler, R.S.; Lyles, C.M.; Peipins, L.A.; McAuliffe, C.A.; Woosley, J.T.; Kupper, L.L. Diet and risk of colorectal adenomas: macronutrients, cholesterol, and fiber. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 1993, 85, 884–891. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Iso, H.; Ikeda, A.; Inoue, M.; Sato, S.; Tsugane, S. Serum cholesterol levels in relation to the incidence of cancer: The JPHC study cohorts. Int. J. Cancer 2009, 125, 2679–2686. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hiramatsu, Y.; Takada, H.; Yamamuram, M.; Hioki, K.; Saito, K.; Yamamoto, M. Effect of dietary cholesterol on azoxymethane-induced colon carcinogenesis in rats. Carcinogenesis 1983, 4, 553–558. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nagata, C.; Shimizu, H.; Kametani, M.; Takeyama, N.; Ohnuma, T.; Matsushita, S. Diet and colorectal adenoma in Japanese males and females. Dis. Colon Rectum 2001, 44, 105–111. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yang, G.; Shu, X.O.; Li, H.; Chow, W.H.; Cai, H.; Zhang, X.; Gao, Y.T.; Zheng, W. Prospective cohort study of soy food intake and colorectal cancer risk in women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2009, 89, 577–583. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McCarl, M.; Harnack, L.; Limburg, P.J.; Anderson, K.E.; Folsom, A.R. Incidence of colorectal cancer in relation to glycemic index and load in a cohort of women. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 2006, 15, 892–896. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Flood, A.; Peters, U.; Jenkins, D.J.; Chatterjee, N.; Subar, A.F.; Church, T.R.; Bresalier, R.; Weissfeld, J.L.; Hayes, R.B.; Schatzkin, A.; Prostate, Lung, Colorectal, Ovarian (PLCO) Project Team. Carbohydrate, glycemic index, and glycemic load and colorectal adenomas in the Prostate, Lung, Colorectal, and Ovarian Screening Study. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2006, 84, 1184–1192. [Google Scholar]
- Strayer, L.; Jacobs, D.R., Jr.; Schairer, C.; Schatzkin, A.; Flood, A. Dietary carbohydrate, glycemic index, and glycemic load and the risk of colorectal cancer in the BCDDP cohort. Cancer Causes Control 2007, 18, 853–863. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Weijenberg, M.P.; Mullie, P.F.; Brants, H.A.; Heinen, M.M.; Goldbohm, R.A.; van den Brandt, P.A. Dietary glycemic load, glycemic index and colorectal cancer risk: results from the Netherlands Cohort Study. Int. J. Cancer 2008, 122, 620–629. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- George, S.M.; Mayne, S.T.; Leitzmann, M.F.; Park, Y.; Schatzkin, A.; Flood, A.; Hollenbeck, A.; Subar, A.F. Dietary glycemic index, glycemic load, and risk of cancer: a prospective cohort study. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2009, 169, 462–472. [Google Scholar]
- Barclay, A.W.; Petocz, P.; McMillan-Price, J.; Flood, V.M.; Prvan, T.; Mitchell, P.; Brand-Miller, J.C. Glycemic index, glycemic load, and chronic disease risk—a meta-analysis of observational studies. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2008, 87, 627–637. [Google Scholar]
- Mulholland, H.G.; Murray, L.J.; Cardwell, C.R.; Cantwell, M.M. Glycemic index, glycemic load, and risk of digestive tract neoplasms: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2009, 89, 568–576. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jee, S.H.; Ohrr, H.; Sull, J.W.; Yun, J.E.; Ji, M.; Samet, J.M. Fasting serum glucose level and cancer risk in Korean men and women. JAMA 2005, 293, 194–202. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stattin, P.; Ove Björ, O.; Ferrari, P.; Lukanova, A.; Lenner, P.; Lindahl, B.; Hallmans, G.; Kaaks, R. Prospective study of hyperglycemia and cancer risk. Diabetes Care 2007, 30, 561–567. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- De-Stefani, E.; Mendilaharsu, M.; Deneo-Pellegrini, H. Sucrose as a risk factor for cancer of colon and rectum: a case-control study in Uruguay. Int. J. Cancer 1998, 75, 40–44. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pisani, P. Hyper-insulinaemia and cancer, meta-analyses of epidemiological studies. Arch. Physiol. Biochem. 2008, 114, 63–70. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, B.; Bobe, G.; LaPres, J.J.; Bourquin, L.D. High sucrose diets promote intestinal epithelial cell proliferation and tumorigenesis in APC (Min) mice by increasing insulin and IGF-I levels. Nutr. Cancer 2009, 61, 81–93. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dragsted, L.O.; Daneshvar, B.; Vogel, U.; Autrup, H.N.; Wallin, H.; Risom, L.; Møller, P.; Mølck, A.M.; Hansen, M.; Poulsen, H.E.; Loft, S. A sucrose-rich diet induces mutations in the rat colon. Cancer Res. 2002, 62, 4339–4345. [Google Scholar]
- Bufill, J.A. Colorectal cancer: evidence for distinct genetic categories based on proximal or distal tumor location. Ann. Intern. Med. 1990, 113, 779–788. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lacopetta, B. Are there two sides to colorectal cancer? Int. J. Cancer 2002, 101, 403–408. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lasson, S.C.; Bergkvist, L.; Wolk, A. High-fat dairy food and conjugated lioleic acid intakes in relation to colorectal cancer incidence in the Swedish Mammography Cohort. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2005, 82, 894–900. [Google Scholar]
- Lindblom, A. Different mechanisms in the tumorigenesis of proximal and distal colon cancers. Curr. Opin. Oncol. 2001, 13, 63–69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Copeland, K.T.; Checkoway, H.; McMichale, A.J.; Holbrook, R.H. Bias due to misclassification in the estimate of relative risk. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1977, 105, 488–495. [Google Scholar]
- D'Avanzo, B.; La Vecchia, C.; Katsouyanni, K.; Negri, E.; Trichopoulos, D. An assessment and reproducibility of food frequency data provided by hospital controls. Eur. J. Cancer Prev. 1997, 6, 288–293. [Google Scholar]
- Wei, E.K.; Giovannucci, E.; Wu, K.; Rosner, B.; Fuchs, C.S.; Willett, W.C.; Colditz, G.A. Comparison of risk factors for colon and rectal cancer. Int. J. Cancer. 2004, 108, 433–442. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fernandez, E.; Gallus, S.; La Vecchia, C.; Talamini, R.; Negri, E.; Franceschi, S. Family history and environmental risk factors for colon cancer. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 2004, 13, 658–661. [Google Scholar]
© 2010 by the authors; licensee Molecular Diversity Preservation International, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/).
Share and Cite
Hu, J.; La Vecchia, C.; Negri, E.; Mery, L. Nutrients and Risk of Colon Cancer. Cancers 2010, 2, 51-67. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers2010051
Hu J, La Vecchia C, Negri E, Mery L. Nutrients and Risk of Colon Cancer. Cancers. 2010; 2(1):51-67. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers2010051
Chicago/Turabian StyleHu, Jinfu, Carlo La Vecchia, Eva Negri, and Les Mery. 2010. "Nutrients and Risk of Colon Cancer" Cancers 2, no. 1: 51-67. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers2010051
APA StyleHu, J., La Vecchia, C., Negri, E., & Mery, L. (2010). Nutrients and Risk of Colon Cancer. Cancers, 2(1), 51-67. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers2010051