Bandera et al., 1997 [19] | United States | Prospective | 48,000 (525) | 40–80 | Vitamin A Males Tertiles 1 Tertiles 2 Tertiles 3 Females Tertiles 1 Tertiles 2 Tertiles 3 | Vitamin A Males 1 0.82 (0.64–1.05) 0.87(0.68–1.10) Females 1 1.19(0.75–1.88) 1.44(0.93–2.23) | Adjusted for age, education, cigarettes/day, years smoking, and total energy intake (except calories) based on Cox Proportional Hazards Model. |
Candelora et al., 1992 [20] | United States | Case-control | 387 (124) | Case: 71.9 Control: 69.8 | Vitamin A Quartile 1 Quartile 2 Quartile 3 Quartile 4 β-carotene Quartile 1 Quartile 2 Quartile 3 Quartile 4 | Vitamin A 1 0.60(0.30–1.20) 0.60 (0.30–1.20) 0.40 (0.20–0.80) β-carotene 1 0.50 (0.30–1.00) 0.50 (0.30–0.90) 0.40 (0.20–0.80) | Adjusted for age, education (≤8 and >8 grades), and total calories. |
Fontham et al., 1988 [12] | United States | Case-control | 2527 (1253) | <40–≥70 | Vitamin A Low Moderate High β-carotene Low Moderate High | Vitamin A 1 0.85 (0.68–1.06) 0.89 (0.72–1.12) β-carotene 1 0.96 (0.76–1.20) 0.88 (0.70–1.11) | Adjusted in logistic regression model for age, race, sex, and pack years of cigarette use. |
Hinds et al., 1984 [21] | United States | Case-control | 991 (364) | ≥30 | Vitamin A (IU) 0–51,799 51,800–78,099 78,100–115,199 115,200 + | Vitamin A 1 0.88 (0.49–1.26) 1.06 (0.58–1.54) 0.63 (0.39–1.00) | Adjustment by multiple logistic regression for age, ethnicity, cholesterol intake, occupational status, vitamin A intake, pack-years of cigarette smoking, and sex where appropriate. |
Holick et al., 2002 [13] | Finland | Prospective | 27,084 (1644) | 50–69 | Vitamin A (μg/day) <717 717–1044 1045–1481 1482–2138 >2138 β-carotene (μg/day) <977 977–1440 1441–2029 2030–3015 >3015 | Vitamin A 1 0.97(0.83–1.14) 1.02(0.87–1.20) 1.03(0.88–1.21) 0.96(0.82–1.13) β-carotene 1 0.92(0.79–1.06) 0.90(0.78–1.04) 0.79(0.68–0.92) 0.92 (0.79–1.07) | Adjusted for age, years smoked cigarettes per day, intervention (α-tocopherol and β-carotene supplement), supplement use (β-carotene and vitamin A), energy intake, cholesterol, and fat. |
Jain et al., 1990 [22] | Canada | Case-control | 1611 (839) | 20–75 | Vitamin A Highest vs. Lowest β-carotene Highest vs. Lowest | Vitamin A 1.11 (0.91–1.37) β-carotene 1.00 (0.79–1.27) | Adjusted for cumulative cigarette smoking |
Jin et al., 2007 [10] | China | Case-control | 903 (301) | ≤80 | Vitamin A (RE/day) ≤947 947–1742 1742–3630 ≥3630 β-carotene (μg/day) ≤3734 3735–7440 7440–15,363 ≥15,363 | Vitamin A 1 0.78 (0.51–1.18) 0.62 (0.41–0.95) 0.59 (0.37–0.94) β-carotene 1 0.74 (0.49–1.12) 0.69 (0.45–1.06) 0.52 (0.32–0.83) | Adjusted for pack-years of cigarette smoking, occupational exposure, passive smoking exposure from mother and friends, medical insurance status and education levels. |
Le Marchand et al., 1989 [23] | United States | Case-control | 1197 (332) | 30–85 | β-carotene Males Quartile 1 Quartile 2 Quartile 3 Quartile 4 Females Quartile 1 Quartile 2 Quartile 3 Quartile 4 | β-carotene Males 1 1.25 (0.76–1.74) 0.81 (0.52–1.10) 0.63 (0.36–1.11) Females 1 0.81 (0.51–1.11) 0.62 (0.31–0.93) 0.39 (0.16–1.00) | Adjusted for age, ethnicity, smoking status, pack-years of cigarette smoking, cholesterol intake (for males only), and intakes of other nutrients in the table. |
Neuhouser et al., 2003 [24] | United States | Prospective | 14,120 (742) | Case: 60.4 Control: 57.6 | β-carotene (μg/day) ≤1156 1157–1714 1715–2331 2332–3428 ≥3429 | β-carotene 1 0.90 (0.63–1.28) 0.92 (0.65–1.30) 1.03 (0.73–1.45) 0.95 (0.67–1.36) | Adjusted for sex, age, smoking status, total pack-years of smoking, asbestos exposure, race/ethnicity, and enrollment center. |
Ocke et al., 1997 [25] | Netherlands | Prospective | 561 (54) | Case: 59.3 Control: 59.5 | β-carotene (mg) <1.07 1.07–1.31 >1.31 | β-carotene 1 0.61 (0.21–1.04) 0.74 (0.41–1.35) | Adjusted for age, pack-years of cigarettes, and energy intake, |
Rohan et al., 2002 [26] | Canada | Prospective | 5516 (155) | 40–59 | β-carotene Quartile 1 Quartile 2 Quartile 3 Quartile 4 | β-carotene 1 1.78 (1.04–3.05) 1.83 (1.03–3.24) 1.40 (0.76–2.59) | Adjusted for age, study allocation, study center, cigarette smoking, vitamin C intake, folate intake, dietary fiber intake, and energy intake. |
Speizer et al., 1999 [27] | United States | Prospective | 121,700 (593) | 30–55 | β-carotene Q5 vs.Q1 | β-carotene 0.80 (0.60–1.11) | Age, total energy intake, smoking (past and current amount in 1980; 1±4, 5±14, 15±24, 25±34, 35±44, 45+) and age of starting to smoke. |
Stefani et al., 1999 [28] | Uruguay | Case-control | 981 (541) | 30–89 | β-carotene (μg/day) <1938 1939–3330 3331–5862 ≥5863 | β-carotene 1 0.83 (0.56–1.22) 0.61 (0.42–0.89) 0.42 (0.28–0.63) | Adjusted for age, residence, urban/rural status, education, family history of a lung cancer in 1st-degree relative, body mass index, tobacco smoking (pack-yr), and total energy and total fat intakes, IQR, interquartile range. |
Steinmetz et al., 1993 [29] | United States | Prospective | 41,837 (179) | 55–69 | β-carotene Quartile 1 Quartile 2 Quartile 3 Quartile 4 | β-carotene 1 0.76 (0.47–1.25) 0.67 (0.39–1.14) 0.81 (0.48–1.38) | Adjusted by inclusion of continuous variables for age, energy intake, and pack-years of smoking in multivariate logistic regression models. |
Takata et al., 2013 [11] | China | Prospective | 61,491 (359) | 40–74 | Vitamin A (μg/day) 359.4 549.8 729.2 1046.1 β-carotene (μg/day) 1449.8 2045.8 3346.9 5025.5 | Vitamin A 1 0.86 (0.65–1.13) 0.85 (0.64–1.14) 0.63 (0.44–0.88) β-carotene 1 0.83 (0.63–1.09) 0.82 (0.62–1.10) 0.64 (0.46–0.88) | Adjusted for age, years of smoking, the number of cigarettes smoked per day, current smoking status, total caloric intake, education, BMI category, ever consumption of tea, history of chronic bronchitis, and family history of lung cancer among first-degree relatives. |
Voorrips et al., 2000 [30] | Netherlands | Prospective | 58,279 (939) | 55–69 | β-carotene Quartile 1 Quartile 2 Quartile 3 Quartile 4 Quartile 5 | β-carotene 1 0.83 (0.60–1.14) 1.00 (0.72–1.39) 1.14 (0.80–1.62) 1.11 (0.76–1.60) | Adjusted for current smoking, years of smoking cigarettes, number of cigarettes per day, highest educational level, family history of lung cancer, and age. |
Wright et al., 2003 [31] | United States | Case-control | 1211 (587) | 35–84 | β-carotene (μg/day) <823.58 823.58–1145.95 1145.96–1526.06 1526.07–2323.54 >2323.54 | β-carotene 1 0.71 (0.49–1.00) 0.60 (0.41–0.87) 0.71 (0.48–1.10) 0.58 (0.39–0.86) | Adjusted for age, total calorie intake, pack-years of smoking, and education. |
Yong et al., 1997 [32] | United States | Prospective | 1068 (248) | 25–74 | Vitamin A (IU) 1 2 3 4 β-carotene (IU) 1 2 3 4 | Vitamin A 1 0.98 (0.68–1.39) 0.98 (0.69–1.40) 1.01 (0.70–1.45) β-carotene 1 0.66 (0.46–0.94) 0.78 (0.56–1.10) 0.74 (0.52–1.06) | Adjusted for sex race, educational attainment, nonrecreabonal activity level, body mass index, family history, smoking status/pack-years of smoking, total calorie intake, and alcohol intake. |
Yuan et al., 2003 [33] | China | Prospective | 63,257 (482) | 45–74 | Vitamin A Quartile 1 Quartile 2 Quartile 3 Quartile 4 Quartile 5 β-carotene Quartile 1 Quartile 2 Quartile 3 Quartile 4 Quartile 5 | Vitamin A 1 0.71 (0.54–0.92) 0.75 (0.58–0.99) 0.99 (0.76–1.28) 0.77 (0.57–1.04) β-carotene 1 0.77 (0.59–1.00) 0.81 (0.62–1.06) 0.98 (0.75–1.28) 0.85 (0.63–1.14) | Adjusted for age at baseline, sex, dialect group, year of interview, level of education, and BMI, number of cigarettes smoked per day, number of years of smoking, and number of years since quitting smoking for former smokers. |