Nutrient Intake and Status in Children and Adolescents Consuming Plant-Based Diets Compared to Meat-Eaters: A Systematic Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Search Strategy
2.2. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
- Study population: Generally healthy children and/or adolescents aged 2 to 18 years. We excluded studies on infants (<2 years) because they have specific dietary needs, including breastfeeding and complementary foods. We also excluded studies conducted in populations with specific diseases.
- Type of studies: Observational studies and intervention studies (baseline data only), that compared nutrient intake and/or status of participants following a predominantly plant-based diet with participants following a conventional diet with meat were included. In addition, studies that reported only on subjects following a predominantly plant-based diet were also included. Generic reviews, case studies, and articles not published in the English language were excluded.
- Diets: To be included in our review, studies had to report on voluntary self-selected diets with a primary focus on reducing animal food intake. Studies reporting on imposed or predesigned plant-based diets (e.g., marginal plant-based staple diets in developing countries, a prescribed vegetarian diet intervention, or a modeled vegetarian diet scenario) were excluded, as well as articles on overly restrictive plant-based diets (e.g., raw food diet, macrobiotic diet) or healthy diets designed to lower non-communicable diseases (e.g., DASH diet, Mediterranean diet).
- Outcome parameters: The included studies provided data on one or more of the following parameters: dietary intake of energy, protein, saturated fatty acids (SAFA), poly-unsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), α-linolenic acid (ALA), and eicosapentanoic acid (EPA); docosahexanoic acid (DHA); dietary intake or nutritional status of micronutrients; bone markers.
2.3. Data Extraction
2.4. Data Handling
- Vegan: consuming no meat, fish, dairy, and eggs at all/not during the days of dietary assessment OR ≤ once per month OR self-defined vegans;
- Vegetarian: consuming no meat and fish at all/not during the days of dietary assessment OR ≤ once per month OR self-defined vegetarians;
- Pesco-vegetarian: consuming no meat at all/not during the days of dietary assessment OR ≤ once per month OR self-defined;
- Semi-vegetarian: consuming meat (and fish) ≤ once per week but > once per month OR consuming meat (and fish) “seldom”/“occasionally”;
- Meat eating: consuming meat > once per week OR self-defined.
2.5. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Study Selection and Study Characteristics
3.2. Energy, Protein, Fatty Acids, and Fiber
3.2.1. Energy
3.2.2. Protein
3.2.3. Fiber
3.2.4. Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids
3.2.5. N-3 Fatty Acids
3.2.6. Saturated Fatty Acids
3.3. Vitamins
3.3.1. Vitamin A
3.3.2. Vitamin B1
3.3.3. Vitamin B2
3.3.4. Niacin
3.3.5. Vitamin B6
3.3.6. Folate
3.3.7. Vitamin B12
3.3.8. Vitamin C
3.3.9. Vitamin D
3.3.10. Vitamin E
3.4. Minerals
3.4.1. Iron
3.4.2. Zinc
3.4.3. Iodine
3.4.4. Calcium
3.4.5. Magnesium
3.4.6. Phosphorus
4. Discussion
4.1. Main Findings and Their Significance
4.2. Strengths and Limitations of This Review
4.3. Putting Findings on Energy and Macronutrients into Perspective
4.4. Putting Findings on Micronutrients into Perspective
4.5. Findings in Other Age Groups
4.6. Public Health Recommendations
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
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Characteristics | Number of Studies (n) |
---|---|
Young children (2–5 y) | 15 |
School children (6–12 y) | 24 |
Adolescents (13–18 y) | 11 |
Meat-eating | 27 |
Vegetarian | 26 |
Vegan | 7 |
Semi-vegetarian | 3 |
Europe | 19 (mostly Poland) |
Asia | 5 (mostly India) |
North America | 2 (US, Canada) |
Oceania | 3 (New Zealand, Australia) |
Africa | 1 (Ghana) |
Nutrient intake, assessed from foods alone | 14 |
Nutrient intake, assessed from foods and supplements | 8 |
Nutrient status in users and non-users of supplements | 20 |
Nutrient status in non-users of supplements only | 3 |
Dietary Pattern | Nutrients at Risk of Inadequacy * | Nutrients of Favorably High Intake |
---|---|---|
Vegans | Vitamin B12, vitamin D | PUFA, fiber |
Calcium, iron, zinc | Vitamin C, vitamin E, folate | |
Vegetarians | SAFA, PUFA **, fiber | |
Vitamin B12, vitamin D | Vitamin E, folate | |
Calcium, iron, zinc | ||
Meat eaters | SAFA, PUFA, fiber | Vitamin B12 |
Vitamin D, vitamin E, folate | Zinc | |
Calcium |
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Neufingerl, N.; Eilander, A. Nutrient Intake and Status in Children and Adolescents Consuming Plant-Based Diets Compared to Meat-Eaters: A Systematic Review. Nutrients 2023, 15, 4341. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15204341
Neufingerl N, Eilander A. Nutrient Intake and Status in Children and Adolescents Consuming Plant-Based Diets Compared to Meat-Eaters: A Systematic Review. Nutrients. 2023; 15(20):4341. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15204341
Chicago/Turabian StyleNeufingerl, Nicole, and Ans Eilander. 2023. "Nutrient Intake and Status in Children and Adolescents Consuming Plant-Based Diets Compared to Meat-Eaters: A Systematic Review" Nutrients 15, no. 20: 4341. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15204341