Diet, Physical Activity and Adiposity as Determinants of Circulating Amino Acid Levels in a Multiethnic Asian Population
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Population and Design
2.2. Assessment of Dietary Intakes
2.3. Assessment of Physical Activity and Anthropometric Measures
2.4. Assessment of Serum Amino Acids
2.5. Assessment of Covariates
2.6. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Intake of Protein and Its Food Sources
3.2. Physical Activity
3.3. Anthropometric Measures
4. Discussion
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Overall (n = 3099) | Males (n = 1392) | Females (n = 1707) | p-Value 1 | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Age (years) Mean (SD) | 45.7 (11.3) | 46.0 (11.5) | 45.5 (11.1) | 0.214 * |
Ethnicity | ||||
No. Chinese (%) | 2298 (75.1) | 1037 (74.5) | 1261 (73.9) | 0.237 # |
No. Malays (%) | 467 (15.1) | 205 (14.7) | 262 (15.3) | |
No. Indians (%) | 334 (10.8) | 150 (10.8) | 184 (10.8) | |
Total energy intake (kcal/day) Median (IQR) | 1992 (956) | 2328 (1046) | 1828 (910) | <0.001 ^ |
Dietary intake Total protein intake (% total energy/day) Mean (SD) | 15.5 (2.3) | 15.2 (2.2) | 15.7 (2.3) | <0.001 * |
Total red meat intake (g/day) Mean (SD) | 48.5 (47.6) | 54.4 (51.6) | 43.8 (43.5) | <0.001 ^ |
Total poultry intake (g/day) Mean (SD) | 49.6 (40.2) | 55.8 (42.0) | 44.6 (37.9) | <0.001 ^ |
Total seafood intake (g/day) Mean (SD) | 80.2 (60.2) | 83.9 (58.3) | 77.1 (61.6) | 0.002 ^ |
Total soy intake (g/day) Mean (SD) | 14.1 (14.3) | 14.9 (14.4) | 13.4 (14.1) | 0.005 ^ |
Total moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MET-hours/week) Median (IQR) | 22.8 (46.2) | 28.0 (67.2) | 19.3 (33.8) | <0.001 ^ |
BMI (kg/m2) Mean (SD) | 23.4 (4.1) | 23.8 (3.8) | 23.1 (4.3) | <0.001 * |
Waist circumference (cm) Mean (SD) | 82.2 (11.6) | 87.5 (10.9) | 77.9 (10.4) | <0.001 * |
Smoking status | <0.001 # | |||
No. Never (%) | 2483 (80.1) | 860 (61.8) | 1623 (95.1) | |
No. Former (%) | 245 (7.9) | 205 (14.7) | 40 (2.3) | |
No. Current (%) | 371 (12.0) | 327 (23.5) | 44 (2.6) | |
Drinking status | <0.001 # | |||
No. Never (%) | 1817 (58.6) | 645 (46.3) | 1172 (68.7) | |
No. Former (%) | 477 (15.4) | 227 (16.3) | 250 (14.6) | |
No. Current (%) | 805 (26.0) | 520 (37.4) | 285 (16.7) | |
Education level | <0.001 # | |||
No. None/Lower primary (%) | 150 (4.8) | 41 (3.0) | 109 (6.4) | |
No. Primary (%) | 518 (16.7) | 194 (13.9) | 324 (19.0) | |
No. Secondary (%) | 1272 (41.1) | 547 (39.3) | 725 (42.5) | |
No. Polytechnic (%) | 572 (18.5) | 273 (19.6) | 299 (17.5) | |
No. University (%) | 587 (18.9) | 337 (24.2) | 250 (14.6) |
Total Protein (Energy %) | Total Meat and Seafood (Energy %) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Overall | Males | Females | Overall | Males | Females | |
Alanine β-coefficient (95% CI) | −0.045 (−0.143, 0.054) | −0.110 (−0.265, 0.045) | 0.009 (−0.120, 0.138) | −0.050 (−0.149, 0.048) | −0.116 (−0.269, 0.038) | 0.003 (−0.126, 0.131) |
Arginine β-coefficient (95% CI) | 0.024 (−0.078, 0.125) | 0.018 (−0.143, 0.179) | 0.032 (−0.101, 0.164) | 0.017 (−0.084, 0.119) | 0.018 (−0.142, 0.178) | 0.019 (−0.114, 0.151) |
Citrulline β-coefficient (95% CI) | −0.103 (−0.198, −0.007) | −0.124 (−0.275, 0.028) | −0.084 (−0.207, 0.038) | −0.111 (−0.205, −0.016) | −0.131 (−0.282, 0.019) | −0.094 (−0.217, 0.029) |
Glutamate/Glutamine β-coefficient (95% CI) | −0.014 (−0.108, 0.081) | −0.089 (−0.243, 0.066) | 0.055 (−0.063, 0.174) | −0.005 (−0.099, 0.089) | −0.078 (−0.231, 0.076) | 0.060 (−0.059, 0.178) |
Glycine β-coefficient (95% CI) | −0.065 (−0.166, 0.035) | −0.107 (−0.237, 0.023) | −0.009 (−0.156, 0.139) | −0.079 (−0.179, 0.021) | −0.107 (−0.236, 0.022) | −0.033 (−0.181, 0.115) |
Histidine β-coefficient (95% CI) | −0.044 (−0.146, 0.059) | −0.015 (−0.175, 0.146) | −0.055 (−0.187, 0.077) | −0.051 (−0.153, 0.051) | −0.017 (−0.177, 0.143) | −0.070 (−0.202, 0.062) |
Isoleucine/Leucine * β-coefficient (95% CI) | 0.048 (−0.038, 0.134) | −0.040 (−0.183, 0.103) | 0.123 (0.018, 0.229) | 0.055 (−0.031, 0.141) | −0.025 (−0.168, 0.117) | 0.123 (0.018, 0.228) |
Methionine β-coefficient (95% CI) | 0.041 (−0.056, 0.138) | 0.060 (−0.010, 0.219) | 0.039 (−0.082, 0.160) | 0.050 (−0.047, 0.147) | 0.072 (−0.086, 0.231) | 0.044 (−0.077, 0.164) |
Ornithine β-coefficient (95% CI) | 0.036 (−0.060, 0.132) | −0.018 (−0.171, 0.135) | 0.097 (−0.027, 0.220) | 0.023 (−0.073, 0.119) | −0.029 (−0.181, 0.123) | 0.082 (−0.042, 0.205) |
Phenylalanine β-coefficient (95% CI) | 0.045 (−0.053, 0.142) | 0.060 (−0.099, 0.218) | 0.034 (−0.088, 0.157) | 0.048 (−0.049, 0.145) | 0.069 (−0.089, 0.226) | 0.031 (−0.092, 0.154) |
Proline β-coefficient (95% CI) | −0.042 (−0.139, 0.056) | −0.125 (−0.278, 0.027) | 0.023 (−0.104, 0.150) | −0.061 (−0.158, 0.036) | −0.144 (−0.295, 0.008) | 0.003 (−0.123, 0.130) |
Serine β-coefficient (95% CI) | 0.052 (−0.049, 0.153) | 0.035 (−0.113, 0.183) | 0.065 (−0.075, 0.206) | 0.041 (−0.060, 0.142) | 0.038 (−0.109, 0.185) | 0.044 (−0.096, 0.185) |
Tyrosine β-coefficient (95% CI) | 0.033 (−0.065, 0.131) | −0.025 (−0.181, 0.131) | 0.074 (−0.051, 0.199) | 0.042 (−0.056, 0.139) | −0.013 (−0.168, 0.142) | 0.078 (−0.048, 0.203) |
Valine * β-coefficient (95% CI) | 0.057 (−0.035, 0.148) | −0.066 (−0.211, 0.080) | 0.159 (0.043, 0.276) | 0.067 (−0.024, 0.158) | −0.047 (−0.191, 0.098) | 0.162 (0.045, 0.278) |
Aromatic β-coefficient (95% CI) | 0.011 (−0.088, 0.110) | 0.004 (−0.153, 0.161) | 0.020 (−0.108, 0.147) | 0.013 (−0.086, 0.111) | 0.011 (−0.145, 0.168) | 0.014 (−0.114, 0.141) |
Branched-chain * β-coefficient (95% CI) | 0.055 (−0.033, 0.144) | −0.058 (−0.201, 0.086) | 0.150 (0.039, 0.261) | 0.064 (−0.024, 0.152) | −0.040 (−0.182, 0.103) | 0.151 (0.040, 0.263) |
Quartile 1 4 (n = 776) | Quartile 2 5 (n = 774) | Quartile 3 6 (n = 774) | Quartile 4 7 (n = 775) | p-Value for Trend 8 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Alanine β-coefficient (95% CI) | 0.000 (reference) | −0.067 (−0.163, 0.028) | −0.090 (−0.186,0.006) | −0.203 (−0.301, −0.106) | <0.001 |
Arginine β-coefficient (95% CI) | 0.000 (reference) | 0.002 (−0.097, 0.100) | −0.150 (−0.249, −0.051) | −0.063 (−0.164, 0.037) | 0.033 |
Citrulline β-coefficient (95% CI) | 0.000 (reference) | −0.002 (−0.095, 0.090) | 0.020 (−0.073, 0.113) | 0.030 (−0.064, 0.124) | 0.467 |
Glutamate/Glutamine β-coefficient (95% CI) | 0.000 (reference) | −0.055 (−0.146, 0.037) | −0.120 (−0.212,−0.028) | −0.119 (−0.212, −0.026) | 0.005 |
Glycine β-coefficient (95% CI) | 0.000 (reference) | 0.067 (−0.030, 0.165) | 0.006 (−0.092, 0.104) | 0.022 (−0.077, 0.121) | 0.961 |
Histidine β-coefficient (95% CI) | 0.000 (reference) | 0.060 (−0.039,0.160) | 0.046 (−0.053, 0.146) | −0.042 (−0.143, 0.058) | 0.414 |
Isoleucine/Leucine β-coefficient (95% CI) | 0.000 (reference) | −0.019 (−0.103, 0.065) | −0.036 (−0.120, 0.048) | −0.116 (−0.202, −0.031) | 0.008 |
Methionine β-coefficient (95% CI) | 0.000 (reference) | −0.008 (−0.102, 0.086) | −0.060 (−0.155, 0.034) | −0.110 (−0.205, −0.014) | 0.014 |
Ornithine β-coefficient (95% CI) | 0.000 (reference) | −0.063 (−0.156, 0.031) | −0.077 (−0.171, 0.017) | 0.002 (−0.093, 0.097) | 0.916 |
Phenylalanine β-coefficient (95% CI) | 0.000 (reference) | −0.011 (−0.105, 0.084) | −0.027 (−0.122, 0.068) | −0.087 (−0.183, 0.009) | 0.077 |
Proline β-coefficient (95% CI) | 0.000 (reference) | −0.066 (−0.160, 0.029) | −0.132 (−0.226, −0.037) | −0.186 (−0.282, −0.091) | <0.001 |
Serine β-coefficient (95% CI) | 0.000 (reference) | −0.024 (−0.123, 0.074) | −0.091 (−0.190, 0.008) | −0.136 (−0.236, −0.036) | 0.003 |
Tyrosine β-coefficient (95% CI) | 0.000 (reference) | −0.029 (−0.124, 0.066) | −0.088 (−0.183, 0.007) | −0.074, (−0.170, 0.023) | 0.070 |
Valine β-coefficient (95% CI) | 0.000 (reference) | 0.008 (−0.081, 0.096) | −0.026 (−0.114, 0.063) | −0.076 (−0.166, 0.014) | 0.076 |
Aromatic β-coefficient (95% CI) | 0.000 (reference) | 0.010 (−0.086, 0.107) | −0.027 (−0.124, 0.069) | −0.081 (−0.179, 0.017) | 0.079 |
Branched-chain β-coefficient (95% CI) | 0.000 (reference) | −0.003 (−0.089, 0.083) | −0.031 (−0.117, 0.055) | −0.096 (−0.183, −0.008) | 0.002 |
Body Mass Index (kg/m2) | Waist Circumference (cm) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Overall | Males | Females | Overall | Males | Females | |
Alanine β-coefficient (95% CI) | 0.036 (0.027, 0.045) | 0.031 (0.017, 0.045) | 0.039 (0.027, 0.050) | 0.020 (0.017, 0.023) | 0.013 (0.008, 0.018) | 0.017 (0.013, 0.022) |
Arginine β-coefficient (95% CI) | −0.014 (−0.023, −0.005) | −0.011 (−0.025, −0.003) | −0.016 (−0.028, −0.004) | 0.000 (−0.003, 0.004) | 0.000 (−0.005, 0.005) | −0.007 (−0.011, −0.002) |
Citrulline β-coefficient (95% CI) | −0.019 (−0.027, −0.010) | −0.012 (−0.025, 0.002) | −0.023 (−0.034, −0.012) | 0.001 (−0.002, 0.004) | −0.005 (−0.010, 0.000) | −0.007 (−0.012, −0.003) |
Glutamate/Glutamine β-coefficient (95% CI) | 0.063 (0.054, 0.071) | 0.060 (0.046, 0.074) | 0.063 (0.052, 0.073) | 0.031 (0.028, 0.034) | 0.021 (0.016, 0.026) | 0.027 (0.023, 0.032) |
Glycine β-coefficient (95% CI) | −0.046 (−0.055, −0.037) | −0.050 (−0.061, −0.038) | −0.049 (−0.063, −0.036) | −0.017 (−0.020, −0.013) | −0.016 (−0.020, −0.012) | −0.018 (−0.024, −0.013) |
Histidine β-coefficient (95% CI) | −0.013 (−0.022, −0.004) | −0.016 (−0.031, −0.002) | −0.014 (−0.026, −0.002) | 0.002 (−0.001, 0.006) | −0.004 (−0.009, 0.001) | −0.001 (−0.006, 0.004) |
Isoleucine/Leucine β-coefficient (95% CI) | 0.056 (0.049, 0.064) | 0.060 (0.047, 0.073) | 0.050 (0.041, 0.060) | 0.034 (0.031, 0.037) | 0.020 (0.016, 0.026) | 0.021 (0.017, 0.025) |
Methionine β-coefficient (95% CI) | 0.008 (−0.001, 0.017) | 0.011 (−0.003, 0.026) | 0.003 (−0.007, 0.014) | 0.014 (0.010, 0.017) | 0.006 (0.001, 0.011) | 0.001 (−0.003, 0.006) |
Ornithine β-coefficient (95% CI) | 0.018 (0.009, 0.027) | 0.014 (0.001, 0.028) | 0.018 (0.007, 0.029) | 0.015 (0.012, 0.018) | 0.003 (−0.002, 0.008) | 0.010 (0.005, 0.014) |
Phenylalanine β-coefficient (95% CI) | 0.045 (0.037, 0.054) | 0.047 (0.033, 0.061) | 0.043 (0.032, 0.054) | 0.022 (0.019, 0.025) | 0.013 (0.008, 0.018) | 0.018 (0.013, 0.022) |
Proline * β-coefficient (95% CI) | 0.026 (0.017, 0.034) | 0.006 (−0.007, 0.020) | 0.039 (0.027, 0.050) | 0.019 (0.015, 0.022) | 0.004 (−0.001, 0.009) | 0.018 (0.013, 0.022) |
Serine β-coefficient (95% CI) | −0.029 (−0.038, −0.020) | −0.031 (−0.044, −0.018) | −0.027 (−0.040, −0.015) | −0.011 (−0.015, −0.008) | −0.010 (−0.015, −0.006) | −0.010 (−0.016, −0.005) |
Tyrosine β-coefficient (95% CI) | 0.061 (0.052, 0.069) | 0.071 (0.057, 0.084) | 0.053 (0.041, 0.064) | 0.025 (0.022, 0.028) | 0.023 (0.019, 0.028) | 0.021 (0.016, 0.026) |
Valine β-coefficient (95% CI) | 0.062 (0.054, 0.070) | 0.059 (0.046, 0.073) | 0.061 (0.050, 0.071) | 0.032 (0.029, 0.035) | 0.018 (0.014, 0.023) | 0.027 (0.022, 0.031) |
Aromatic β-coefficient (95% CI) | 0.037 (0.028, 0.046) | 0.040 (0.026, 0.054) | 0.032 (0.021, 0.044) | 0.020 (0.016, 0.023) | 0.013 (0.008, 0.018) | 0.015 (0.010, 0.020) |
Branched-chain β-coefficient (95% CI) | 0.062 (0.054, 0.070) | 0.062 (0.049, 0.075) | 0.058 (0.048, 0.069) | 0.034 (0.031, 0.037) | 0.020 (0.015, 0.024) | 0.025 (0.021, 0.029) |
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Gunther, S.H.; Khoo, C.M.; Sim, X.; Tai, E.S.; van Dam, R.M. Diet, Physical Activity and Adiposity as Determinants of Circulating Amino Acid Levels in a Multiethnic Asian Population. Nutrients 2020, 12, 2603. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12092603
Gunther SH, Khoo CM, Sim X, Tai ES, van Dam RM. Diet, Physical Activity and Adiposity as Determinants of Circulating Amino Acid Levels in a Multiethnic Asian Population. Nutrients. 2020; 12(9):2603. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12092603
Chicago/Turabian StyleGunther, Samuel H., Chin Meng Khoo, Xueling Sim, E Shyong Tai, and Rob M. van Dam. 2020. "Diet, Physical Activity and Adiposity as Determinants of Circulating Amino Acid Levels in a Multiethnic Asian Population" Nutrients 12, no. 9: 2603. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12092603