Daily Eating Frequency in US Adults: Associations with Low-Calorie Sweeteners, Body Mass Index, and Nutrient Intake (NHANES 2007–2016)
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Subjects and Methods
2.1. Definitions
2.2. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
BMI | body mass index |
CI | confidence interval |
CSFII | Continuing Survey of Food Intakes of Individuals |
DG | Dietary Guidelines for Americans |
DGAC | Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee |
FBA | food and beverage additions |
FDA | United States Food and Drug Administration |
INTERMAP | International Study on Macro/Micronutrients and Blood Pressure |
LCS | low-calorie sweetener |
NCHS | National Center for Health Statistics |
NHANES | National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey |
NHW | non-Hispanic white |
NHB | non-Hispanic black |
NS | nutritive sweeteners |
US | United States |
USDA | United States Department of Agriculture |
y | year |
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Total Population | Total Population | Normal Weight (29.4%) | Overweight (33.6%) | Obese (37.1%) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
No LCS (64.8%) | LCS (35.2%) | No LCS (21.2%) | LCS (8.2%) | No LCS (21.7%) | LCS (11.9%) | No LCS (21.9%) | LCS (15.1%) | ||
Type of Episode 4 (%) | |||||||||
Food Only | 27.44 ± 0.40 | 27.91 ± 0.42 | 26.65 ± 0.50 * | 29.06 ± 0.52 | 27.43 ± 0.92 * | 27.47 ± 0.46 | 26.09 ± 0.74 | 27.19 ± 0.60 | 26.66 ± 0.64 |
Food and Beverage | 43.01 ± 0.38 | 42.48 ± 0.43 | 43.90 ± 0.46 | 41.23 ± 0.53 | 43.84 ± 0.75 | 43.14 ± 0.53 | 44.42 ± 0.63 | 43.09 ± 0.56 | 43.52 ± 0.67 |
Beverage Only | 29.55 ± 0.30 | 29.61 ± 0.30 | 29.45 ± 0.37 | 29.71 ± 0.41 | 28.73 ± 0.74 | 29.40 ± 0.45 | 29.49 ± 0.58 | 29.72 ± 0.46 | 29.82 ± 0.44 |
LCS and NS per Episode (%) | |||||||||
No LCS or NS | 35.66 ± 0.32 | 38.65 ± 0.40 | 30.62 ± 0.33 ** | 38.84 ± 0.57 | 30.43 ± 0.74 ** | 38.42 ± 0.55 | 30.96 ± 0.52 ** | 38.69 ± 0.52 | 30.46 ± 0.42 ** |
NS only | 53.07 ± 0.29 | 61.35 ± 0.40 | 39.14 ± 0.32 | 61.16 ± 0.57 | 42.37 ± 0.76 | 61.58 ± 0.55 | 39.46 ± 0.51 | 61.31 ± 0.52 | 37.07 ± 0.46 |
LCS only | 4.85 ± 0.11 | -- | 13.02 ± 0.22 | -- | 11.05 ± 0.51 | -- | 12.91 ± 0.35 | -- | 14.21 ± 0.36 |
LCS and NS | 6.42 ± 0.16 | -- | 17.22 ± 0.27 | -- | 16.15 ± 0.59 | -- | 16.67 ± 0.44 | -- | 18.26 ± 0.38 |
Time of First Episode (mean ± min) | 7:30am ± 2.4 | 7:39am ± 2.6 | 7:13am ± 3.0 ** | 7:37am ± 3.6 | 7:22am ± 5.4 | 7:34am ± 3.5 | 7:04am ± 4.8 ** | 7:47am ± 3.4 | 7:16am ± 4.1 ** |
Time of Last Episode (mean ± min) | 8:23pm ± 1.2 | 8:21pm ± 1.4 | 8:27pm ± 1.9 * | 8:25pm ± 2.6 | 8:29pm ± 4.0 | 8:20pm ± 2.2 | 8:24pm ± 2.9 | 8:19pm ± 1.9 | 8:28pm ± 3.0 * |
Number of Episodes (n/d, mean) | 5.60 ± 0.03 | 5.42 ± 0.04 | 5.93 ± 0.03 ** | 5.56 ± 0.05 | 6.04 ± 0.08 ** | 5.44 ± 0.04 | 5.98 ± 0.06 ** | 5.26 ± 0.04 | 5.83 ± 0.04 ** |
Eating Hours 5 (h/d, mean) | 12.60 ± 0.04 | 12.40 ± 0.04 | 12.97 ± 0.05 ** | 12.43 ± 0.06 | 12.86 ± 0.10 ** | 12.49 ± 0.05 | 13.09 ± 0.07 ** | 12.27 ± 0.06 | 12.93 ± 0.06 ** |
Eating Hours 5 (%) | |||||||||
Less than 11.0 h/24 | 20.48 ± 0.51 | 22.93 ± 0.60 | 15.96 ± 0.59 ** | 21.24 ± 0.89 | 18.28 ± 1.33 * | 21.86 ± 0.70 | 15.32 ± 0.90 ** | 25.63 ± 0.92 | 15.21 ± 0.77 ** |
≥11.0 to <13.0 h/24 | 28.46 ± 0.41 | 29.22 ± 0.44 | 27.06 ± 0.78 | 30.59 ± 0.88 | 26.56 ± 1.46 | 28.09 ± 0.82 | 24.91 ± 1.23 | 29.02 ± 0.71 | 29.02 ± 1.15 |
≥13.0 to <14.5 h/24 | 26.03 ± 0.39 | 25.17 ± 0.43 | 27.63 ± 0.62 | 25.63 ± 0.86 | 26.34 ± 1.37 | 26.01 ± 0.75 | 28.89 ± 1.24 | 23.88 ± 0.76 | 27.34 ± 0.95 |
14.5 h or greater/24 | 25.03 ± 0.54 | 22.68 ± 0.58 | 29.35 ± 0.83 | 22.53 ± 0.82 | 28.82 ± 1.62 | 24.03 ± 0.87 | 30.89 ± 1.29 | 21.48 ± 0.79 | 28.43 ± 1.35 |
Evening/Morning Energy Ratio (median) | 1.69 (0.73, 4.00) | 1.69 (0.71, 4.30) | 1.67 (0.76, 3.59) ** | 1.84 (0.82, 4.46) | 1.79 (0.83, 3.91) ** | 1.66 (0.70, 4.00) | 1.64 (0.76, 3.20) ** | 1.60 (0.66, 4.48) | 1.66 (0.70, 3.87) ** |
Evening/Morning Energy (%) | |||||||||
Lower 25th (<0.73, morning) | 25.00 ± 0.64 | 25.51 ± 0.62 | 24.05 ± 0.74 ** | 22.81 ± 0.88 | 22.44 ± 1.47 | 26.00 ± 0.83 | 23.19 ± 1.30 ** | 27.64 ± 1.03 | 25.60 ± 0.91 |
25th to 50th (≥0.73 to <1.69) | 25.00 ± 0.53 | 24.35 ± 0.57 | 26.20 ± 0.77 | 24.25 ± 0.88 | 25.39 ± 1.85 | 24.74 ± 0.88 | 28.30 ± 1.40 | 24.05 ± 0.82 | 24.98 ± 0.98 |
50th to 75th (≥1.69 to <4.00) | 25.00 ± 0.45 | 23.87 ± 0.50 | 27.05 ± 0.68 | 25.63 ± 0.81 | 27.67 ± 1.38 | 24.17 ± 0.92 | 28.87 ± 1.37 | 21.87 ± 0.68 | 25.28 ± 1.06 |
Upper 75th (≥4.00, evening) | 25.00 ± 0.39 | 26.27 ± 0.48 | 22.70 ± 0.71 | 27.31 ± 0.89 | 24.49 ± 1.35 | 25.08 ± 0.77 | 19.64 ± 1.16 | 26.44 ± 0.83 | 24.13 ± 1.07 |
Total Population | Total Population | Normal Weight (29.4%) | Overweight (33.6%) | Obese (37.1%) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
No LCS (64.8%) | LCS (35.2%) | No LCS (21.2%) | LCS (8.2%) | No LCS (21.7%) | LCS (11.9%) | No LCS (21.9%) | LCS (15.1%) | ||
Nutrients per episode (mean ± SEM) | |||||||||
Grams (g) | 630 ± 5 | 644 ± 5 | 605 ± 6 ** | 616 ± 8 | 568 ± 11 ** | 648 ± 8 | 603 ± 9 ** | 668 ± 7 | 628 ± 7 ** |
Energy (kcal) | 383 ± 2 | 406 ± 3 | 344 ± 3 ** | 400 ± 5 | 327 ± 5 ** | 408 ± 4 | 347 ± 5 ** | 408 ± 4 | 352 ± 4 ** |
Energy from Food (kcal) | 292 ± 2 | 303 ± 2 | 274 ± 2 ** | 298 ± 4 | 255 ± 4 ** | 304 ± 3 | 273 ± 4 ** | 306 ± 3 | 286 ± 4 ** |
Energy from Beverage (kcal) | 66 ± 1 | 79 ± 1 | 46 ± 1 ** | 78 ± 2 | 46 ± 2 ** | 79 ± 2 | 49 ± 2 ** | 79 ± 1 | 43 ± 1 ** |
Energy from FBA (kcal) | 24 ± 0.3 | 24 ± 0.4 | 25 ± 0.5 | 24 ± 1 | 27 ± 1 | 25 ± 1 | 25 ± 1 | 23 ± 1 | 23 ± 1 |
Energy density (kcal/g) | 1.14 ± 0.01 | 1.17 ± 0.01 | 1.09 ± 0.01 ** | 1.19 ± 0.01 | 1.13 ± 0.02 * | 1.15 ± 0.01 | 1.07 ± 0.02 ** | 1.16 ± 0.01 | 1.08 ± 0.02 ** |
Protein (g) | 14.8 ± 0.10 | 15.3 ± 0.12 | 14.1 ± 0.13 ** | 15.0 ± 0.21 | 13.2 ± 0.3 ** | 15.6 ± 0.2 | 14.3 ± 0.2 ** | 15.2 ± 0.2 | 14.5 ± 0.2 ** |
Carbohydrate (g) | 45.7 ± 0.27 | 49.3 ± 0.35 | 39.6 ± 0.31 ** | 48.9 ± 0.62 | 39.2 ± 0.7 ** | 49.2 ± 0.5 | 39.5 ± 0.6 ** | 49.8 ± 0.8 | 39.9 ± 0.5 ** |
Total Sugars (g) | 20.3 ± 0.18 | 22.6 ± 0.24 | 16.3 ± 0.16 ** | 22.1 ± 0.38 | 16.6 ± 0.3 ** | 22.7 ± 0.5 | 16.2 ± 0.3 ** | 23.1 ± 0.3 | 16.1 ± 0.3 ** |
Dietary Fiber (g) | 3.05 ± 0.03 | 3.09 ± 0.02 | 2.97 ± 0.04* | 3.15 ± 0.05 | 3.10 ± 0.08 | 3.12 ± 0.04 | 3.01 ± 0.06 | 3.01 ± 0.04 | 2.87 ± 0.04 * |
Total Fat (g) | 14.7 ± 0.10 | 15.2 ± 0.12 | 13.7 ± 0.14 ** | 14.7 ± 0.21 | 12.5 ± 0.3 ** | 15.4 ± 0.2 | 13.7 ± 0.2 ** | 15.6 ± 0.2 | 14.5 ± 0.2 ** |
Nutrients for all eating episodes (Person level 2; mean ± SEM) | |||||||||
Energy (kcal) | 2143 ± 9 | 2197 ± 13 | 2044 ± 14 ** | 2225 ± 24 | 1977 ± 26 ** | 2220 ± 19 | 2075 ± 26 ** | 2147 ± 19 | 2055 ± 20 * |
Protein (g) | 83.1 ± 0.5 | 82.7 ± 0.5 | 83.8 ± 0.7 | 83.2 ± 1.0 | 79.7 ± 1.0 * | 84.7 ± 1.1 | 85.4 ± 1.1 | 80.1 ± 0.7 | 84.7 ± 1.0 ** |
Carbohydrate (g) | 256 ± 1 | 267 ± 2 | 235 ± 2 ** | 272 ± 3 | 237.1 ± 4 ** | 267 ± 2 | 236 ± 3 ** | 262 ± 3 | 232 ± 2 ** |
Total Sugars (g) | 113 ± 1 | 123 ± 1 | 96.5 ± 0.9 ** | 123 ± 2 | 100.2 ± 2 ** | 123 ± 1. | 96.9 ± 1.7 ** | 122 ± 2 | 94 ± 1.3 ** |
Dietary Fiber (g) | 17.1 ± 0.2 | 16.8 ± 0.2 | 17.6 ± 0.2 ** | 17.6 ± 0.3 | 18.7 ± 0.4 * | 17.0 ± 0.3 | 18.0 ± 0.4 * | 15.8 ± 0.2 | 16.8 ± 0.2 * |
Total Fat (g) | 82.1 ± 0.5 | 82.5 ± 0.6 | 81.5 ± 0.7 | 81.9 ± 1.0 | 75.7 ± 1.4 ** | 83.6 ± 0.9 | 81.9 ± 1.3 | 81.8 ± 0.9 | 84.4 ± 1.2 |
Mean BMI Difference per Specified Unit (95% CI) | |||
---|---|---|---|
Variable | Initial Models 1 | Secondary Models 2 | Final Models 3 |
LCS (yes versus no) | 1.61 (1.32, 1.91) | ---- | ---- |
Number of Episodes (n/day) | −0.16 (−0.23, −0.08) | −0.20 (−0.27, −0.12) | −0.22 (−0.29, −0.14) |
Eating Hours 4 (h/day) | −0.02 (−0.07, 0.02) | −0.05 (−0.09, 0.004) | −0.05 (−0.10, −0.001) |
Eating Hours 4 (categories) | |||
Less than 11.0 h/24 | Referent | Referent | Referent |
≥11.0 to <13.0 h/24 | −0.21 (−0.55, 0.13) | −0.25 (−0.61, 0.10) | −0.27 (−0.62, 0.09) |
≥13.0 to <14.5 h/24 | −0.32 (−0.64, −0.001) | −0.42 (−0.74, −0.10) | −0.44 (−0.76, −0.12) |
14.5 h or greater/24 | −0.32 (−0.69, 0.05) | −0.47 (−0.84, −0.11) | −0.50 (−0.88, −0.13) |
Evening/Morning Energy | |||
Lower 25th (<0.73, morning) | Referent | Referent | Referent |
25th to 50th (≥0.73 to <1.69) | −0.06 (−0.52, 0.08) | −0.24 (−0.54, 0.05) | −0.25 (−0.55, 0.05) |
50th to 75th (≥1.69 to <4.00) | −0.36 (−0.68, −0.05) | −0.41 (−0.73, −0.09) | −0.42 (−0.74, −0.10) |
Upper 75th (≥4.00, evening) | −0.06 (−0.41, 0.29) | −0.06 (−0.41, 0.29) | −0.06 (−0.41, 0.28) |
BMI—Difference per Specified Unit (Beta Values with 95% CI) | |||
---|---|---|---|
Stratified by LCS | |||
Variable | LCS—No | LCS—Yes | p-Value Interaction |
Number of Episodes (n/d) | −0.24 (−0.32, −0.15) | −0.18 (−0.31, −0.06) | 0.4407 |
Eating Hours 2 (h/d) | −0.06 (−0.12, −0.01) | −0.02 (−0.12, 0.09) | 0.4231 |
Eating Hours 2 (categories) | |||
Less than 11.0 h/24 | Referent | Referent | |
≥11.0 to <13.0 h/24 | −0.60 (−0.99, −0.22) | 0.50 (−0.16, 1.16) | 0.0035 |
≥13.0 to <14.5 h/24 | −0.56 (−0.93, −0.19) | −0.07 (−0.70, 0.56) | 0.1823 |
14.5 h or greater/24 | −0.69 (−1.08, −0.30) | −0.04 (−0.76, 0.68) | 0.1027 |
Evening/Morning Energy | |||
Lower 25th (<0.73, morning) | Referent | Referent | |
25th to 50th (≥0.73 to <1.69) | −0.30 (−0.63, 0.04) | −0.16 (−0.73, 0.42) | 0.6697 |
50th to 75th (≥1.69 to <4.00) | −0.47 (−0.82, −0.12) | −0.33 (−0.91, 0.25) | 0.6658 |
Upper 75th (≥4.00, evening) | −0.13 (−0.52, 0.26) | 0.06 (−0.52, 0.65) | 0.5656 |
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Hunt, K.J.; St. Peter, J.V.; Malek, A.M.; Vrana-Diaz, C.; Marriott, B.P.; Greenberg, D. Daily Eating Frequency in US Adults: Associations with Low-Calorie Sweeteners, Body Mass Index, and Nutrient Intake (NHANES 2007–2016). Nutrients 2020, 12, 2566. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12092566
Hunt KJ, St. Peter JV, Malek AM, Vrana-Diaz C, Marriott BP, Greenberg D. Daily Eating Frequency in US Adults: Associations with Low-Calorie Sweeteners, Body Mass Index, and Nutrient Intake (NHANES 2007–2016). Nutrients. 2020; 12(9):2566. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12092566
Chicago/Turabian StyleHunt, Kelly J., John V. St. Peter, Angela M. Malek, Caroline Vrana-Diaz, Bernadette P. Marriott, and Danielle Greenberg. 2020. "Daily Eating Frequency in US Adults: Associations with Low-Calorie Sweeteners, Body Mass Index, and Nutrient Intake (NHANES 2007–2016)" Nutrients 12, no. 9: 2566. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12092566
APA StyleHunt, K. J., St. Peter, J. V., Malek, A. M., Vrana-Diaz, C., Marriott, B. P., & Greenberg, D. (2020). Daily Eating Frequency in US Adults: Associations with Low-Calorie Sweeteners, Body Mass Index, and Nutrient Intake (NHANES 2007–2016). Nutrients, 12(9), 2566. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12092566