Modeling Methane Emission from Wetlands in North-Eastern New South Wales, Australia Using Landsat ETM+
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Satellite Data
Bands | Spectral range (Microns) | Spatial resolution |
Band 1 | 0.45–0.52 | 30 × 30 m |
Band 2 | 0.52–0.60 | 30 × 30 m |
Band 3 | 0.63–0.69 | 30 × 30 m |
Band 4 | 0.76–0.90 | 30 × 30 m |
Band 6 | 10.40–12.50 | 60 × 60 m |
2.3. Methane Emission Estimation
- ECH4 = Estimated Methane Emission
- A = Area of wetland classes
- Ft = T factor
- Eobs = observed methane flux from different wetland classes,
- P = Productivity factor
- fw = P/E = Precipitation /Evaporation ratio, Where: fw {P/E if P ≤ E} or {1 if P > E}.
2.3.1. Estimating Area of Methane Emitting Wetlands
2.3.1.1. Conversion of DN to Radiance-Landsat ETM+
- Lrad = Spectral radiance, W/m2/sr/µm
- DN = Digital number.
Bands | Gain | Bias |
1 | 0.7756863 | −6.1999969 |
2 | 0.7956862 | −6.3999939 |
3 | 0.6192157 | −5.0000000 |
4 | 0.6372549 | −5.1000061 |
2.3.1.2. Conversion of Radiance to Reflectance—Landsat ETM+
- RTOA: the planetary reflectance
- Lrad: is the spectral radiance at the sensor’s aperture;
- π: ≈ 3.14159
- ESUNi: the mean solar exoatmospheric irradiance of each band
- d = (1 − 0.01672 × COS (RADIANS (0.9856 × (Julian_Day − 4)))).
- z: solar zenith angle (zenith angle = 90 − solar elevation angle), solar elevation angle is within the header file of the satellite images.
2.3.1.3. Classification
2.3.2. Estimating T factor
- Ft = T factor
- Ts = Land surface temperature in Degrees Celsius
- = Mean of F (Ts) over wetlands. It was derived from the F (Ts) image. The F (Ts) image was converted from raster to vector format in ArcGIS and their mean values estimated.
2.3.2.1. Estimating Land surface Temperature (Ts)
Conversion of Digital Number (DN) to Spectral Radiance
- L λ = radiance, W/m2/sr/µm
- DN = digital number
Conversion of Spectral Radiance to At-Satellite Brightness Temperature (Blackbody temperature)
- TB = at-satellite temperature in Kelvin
- L λ = spectral radiance W/m2/sr/µm
- K2 and K1 are pre-launch calibration constants. For Landsat-7 ETM+
- K2 = 1,282.71 K
- K1 = 666.09 mW cm−2 sr−1 μm−1.
- ε = emissivity
- NDVI = Normalized Difference Vegetation Index.
- St = emissivity corrected land surface temperatures (LST) in Kelvin
- λ = wavelength of emitted radiance,
- ρ = h × c/σ (1.438769 × 10−2 m K, second radiation constant), σ = Boltzmann constant (1.3806503 × 10−23 J/K), h = Planck’s constant (6.626068 × 10−34 J s), c = velocity of light (2.99792 × 108 m/s).
- TB = at-satellite temperature in Kelvin
- ε = emissivity of wetland classes
Wetland classe | LST (°C) | T °C from BOM | Projected LST (°C) assuming 1 °C rise in mean annual temperature by the year 2030 |
Mangroves and saltmarshes | 12.23 ± 0.64 | 12.98 ± 0.56 | 13.23 ± 0.64 |
Forested wetlands | 10.78 ± 0.51 | 10.56 ± 0.61 | 11.78 ± 0.51 |
Coastal swamps | 11.77 ± 0.78 | 11.11 ± 0.72 | 12.77 ± 0.78 |
Estuarine water bodies | 14.13 ± 0.72 | 15.23 ± 0.69 | 15.13 ± 0.72 |
Coastal upland water bodies | 12.85 ± 0.79 | 12.12 ± 0.70 | 13.85 ± 0.79 |
Dunal wetlands | 12.22 ± 0.75 | 13.31 ± 0.54 | 13.22 ± 0.75 |
2.3.3. Methane Flux
2.3.4. Productivity Factor
- R = Productivity factor
- NPP = Net primary productivity.
2.3.5. Precipitation and Evaporation Ratio
3. Results
Wetland | T factor | Projected T factor-assuming 1 °C rise in mean annual temperature by the year 2030 |
Mangroves and saltmarshes | 0.69 ± 0.15 | 0.96 ± 0.20 |
Forested wetlands | 0.45 ± 0.08 | 0.64 ± 0.12 |
Coastal swamps | 0.57 ± 0.16 | 0.80 ± 0.22 |
Estuarine water bodies | 1.03 ± 0.25 | 1.44 ± 0.34 |
Coastal upland water bodies | 0.71 ± 0.19 | 0.99 ± 0.26 |
Dunal wetlands | 0.70 ± 0.18 | 0.98 ± 0.25 |
Wetland class | Mean Flux ± SE (g/m2/day) | Mean Flux ± SE (g/m2/month) | Number of gas samples |
Mangroves and saltmarshes | 0.016 ± 0.01 | 0.496 ± 0.32 | 16 |
Forested wetlands | 1.029 ± 0.01 | 31.286 ± 2.97 | 16 |
Coastal swamps | 0.161 ± 0.05 | 4.893 ± 1.44 | 16 |
Estuarine water bodies | 0.022 ± 0.0001 | 0.683 ± 0.004 | 16 |
Coastal upland water bodies | 0.015 ± 0.004 | 0.461 ± 0.13 | 16 |
Dunal wetlands | 0.037 ± 0.02 | 1.123 ± 0.54 | 16 |
Wetland class | Mean Productivity factor and SE |
Mangroves and saltmarshes | 1.00 ± 0.00 |
Forested wetlands | 0.73 ± 0.04 |
Coastal swamps | 0.75 ± 0.70 |
Estuarine water bodies | 0.95 ± 0.07 |
Coastal upland water bodies | 0.25 ± 0.00 |
Dunal wetlands | 0.39 ± 0.13 |
Producer’s Accuracy | User’s Accuracy | Overall Accuracy | Overall Kappa Statistics | |
D = Dunal wetlands | 85.19% | 90.20% | ||
F = Forested wetlands | 79.59% | 78.00% | ||
S = Coastal swamps | 84.62% | 83.02% | ||
L = Coastal upland water bodies | 89.58% | 86.00% | ||
M = Mangroves and saltmarshes | 98.03% | 96.15% | ||
E = Estuarine water bodies | 87.93% | 91.07% | ||
87.50% | 85.00% |
Wetland type | Area covered by wetland (km2) | Methane emission estimate in June (Tg) ± SE | Methane emission estimate (Tg) in June assuming a 1 °C rise in mean annual temperature ± SE |
Mangroves and saltmarshes | 36.56 | 0.000013 ± 0.000006 | 0.000018 ± 000008 |
Forested wetlands | 152.09 | 0.0016 ± 0.00009 | 0.0022 ± 0.0001 |
Coastal upland water bodies | 32.74 | 0.0000019 ± 0.0000005 | 0.0000037 ± 0.0000007 |
Estuarine water bodies | 35.97 | 0.000024 ± 0.0000001 | 0.000034 ± 0.0000001 |
Coastal swamps | 150.56 | 0.00031 ± 00002 | 0.00044 ± 0.00001 |
Dunal wetlands | 73.37 | 0.000022 ± 0.000008 | 0.000031 ± 0.00001 |
Total | 481.29 | 0.0019 ± 0.0001 | 0.0027 ± 0.0002 |
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgements
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Akumu, C.E.; Pathirana, S.; Baban, S.; Bucher, D. Modeling Methane Emission from Wetlands in North-Eastern New South Wales, Australia Using Landsat ETM+. Remote Sens. 2010, 2, 1378-1399. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs2051378
Akumu CE, Pathirana S, Baban S, Bucher D. Modeling Methane Emission from Wetlands in North-Eastern New South Wales, Australia Using Landsat ETM+. Remote Sensing. 2010; 2(5):1378-1399. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs2051378
Chicago/Turabian StyleAkumu, Clement E., Sumith Pathirana, Serwan Baban, and Daniel Bucher. 2010. "Modeling Methane Emission from Wetlands in North-Eastern New South Wales, Australia Using Landsat ETM+" Remote Sensing 2, no. 5: 1378-1399. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs2051378