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Article

Lake Evolution and Its Response to Urban Expansion in Wuhan City in the Last Hundred Years Based on Historical Maps and Remote Sensing Images

by
Guoqing Li
1,
Yufen Zhang
1 and
Chang’an Li
2,*
1
School of Geophysics and Spatial Information, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China
2
School of Geography and Information Engineering, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Remote Sens. 2025, 17(9), 1563; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs17091563
Submission received: 12 March 2025 / Revised: 16 April 2025 / Accepted: 24 April 2025 / Published: 28 April 2025
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Wuhan is dotted with lakes, is known as the “City with Hundreds of Lakes”, and the development of the city is inseparable from the river and lake waters, with the evolution of the lakes affecting the construction and layout of the city. Since the 20th century, the lake evolution in the main urban area of Wuhan has been the most intense and the urban development has also been the most rapid. Therefore, on the basis of the study of the origin of different types of lakes, based on the precious high-precision historical maps of Wuhan in the early- and mid-20th century, combined with the information about lakes in Wuhan obtained from satellite remote sensing images, the evolution characteristics of the lakes in Wuhan in the past 100 years (1920~2019) were investigated through the theory of landscape fractal, and the response mechanism of lake evolution to urban expansion was further explored by being combined with the trajectory of urban expansion. The results show that the area of lakes in Wuhan declined from 2133.5 km2 in 1920 to 550.8 km2 in 2019, with a total decrease of 1582.7 km2, an area shrinkage rate of 74.18%, and a strong amplitude of area change. The changes in the fractal dimension and the shoreline development coefficient of lakes in Wuhan city show synchronization as a whole, with occasional fluctuations, but on the whole, the fractal dimension and shoreline development coefficient of lakes are becoming smaller over a century. Specifically, the evolution of lakes in the Hankou area is mainly affected by the construction of dykes and lake filling, and most of the lakes are resolved and fragmented under the influence of urban expansion, whereas the evolution of lakes in Wuchang and Hanyang is mainly caused by the urban construction around the lakes, and many lake branches have been cut for various urban constructions, and the shape of the lake tends to be simple and regular under the influence of urban expansion. This study is of great significance for filling in the history of lake evolution in Wuhan before the popularization of remote sensing, and for guiding the rational development of lakes in Wuhan and the sustainable and healthy development of Wuhan.

1. Introduction

Lakes are an important national resource, as an important node in the interaction of the atmosphere, biosphere, lithosphere and terrestrial hydrosphere [1,2], the dynamic changes in lakes directly affect the regional ecological and environmental security and sustainable socio-economic development. The middle and lower Yangtze River plain and Tibetan plateau are the most concentrated areas for the distribution of lakes in China, forming two major dense lake clusters opposite to each other in the east and the west [3], among which the middle and lower Yangtze River plain is the most concentrated area of freshwater and shallow water lakes in China.
Wuhan is located in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River, with a network of rivers and numerous lakes, and is known as the “River City” and the “City with Hundreds of Lakes” [4]. Lakes are one of the most important natural resources and ecological background elements in Wuhan [5]. With the rapid population growth and urban development, the number and area of lakes in Wuhan have decreased sharply, and the ecological problems are serious, which have seriously affected the sustainable development of the city [6,7]. The ecological environment [8,9,10,11,12,13] and scale changes [14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22] are hot issues that have been of interest to many geoscientists and environmental scholars in recent years.
Based on remote sensing data from 1990 to 2019, Wen analyzed the evolution characteristics of 58 lakes in Wuhan from 1990 to 2019 from the three aspects of lake area, lake landscape and lakefront ecology, and found that the total area of 58 lakes decreased by 15.3%, in addition, the lake landscape showed a worsening trend, and all the five lake landscape indexes showed a decreasing trend, but the ecology of the lakeside area is gradually recovering [23]. Chen analyzed the changes in major lakes in Wuhan from a landscape perspective by using Landsat remote sensing imagery over a 40-year period from 1973 to 2013 and concluded that the evolution of lakes within the city, especially shallow-water lakes, is drastically affected by policy orientation and economic drive [24]. Shi analyzed the permanent disappearance of and seasonal fluctuations in 28 major urban lakes in Wuhan by using the Landsat and HJ-1A long time-series remote sensing data from 1987 to 2016, the results of which showed that most lakes in Wuhan have shrunk over 30 years, leading to a permanent shift from water to land [25]. Based on the theory of landscape ecology, Chen used Landsat image data of 1995, 2005 and 2015 to establish a landscape ecological security evaluation model of lake subsystems in Wuhan central city using multiple landscape indices and concluded that the landscape ecological security of lake systems in Wuhan city has been deteriorating continuously and shows a tendency of spreading outward with the development of the city [26]. In terms of the most concerned lake evolution in Wuhan, most of the research periods have been concentrated since the 1970s and 1980s, i.e., after the widespread use of remote sensing image data. Although the research period has reached 40–50 years, it has created difficulties in revealing long-term lake changes in Wuhan, especially since the city has undergone nearly a century’s history of intensive urban development. Moreover, it cannot reveal the law of long-term evolution of lakes in Wuhan, especially the relationship between urban development and lake evolution. In this context, historical maps can provide useful complementary data to Landsat images for studying long-term changes in regional lakes and revealing how the main driving factors act [27,28,29].
Through the collection of a large number of ancient maps, it is found that the earliest maps of Wuhan with scale completed by modern cartographic technology appeared in the early 20th century. In this paper, measured historical maps, historical data and high-precision remote sensing image data of Wuhan since the early 20th century are used as research materials, and geographic information technology is used to discuss the evolution process of Wuhan’s lakes in the past 100 years, extending the evolution sequence of Wuhan’s lakes to the centennial scale, and systematically analyzing the relationship between Wuhan’s lake evolution and urban expansion.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area

Wuhan is located in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River (Figure 1), in the eastern part of Hubei Province (29°58′–31°22′N and 113°41′–115°05′E). It is one of the “three central cities” of the Yangtze River Economic Belt and a historic city. As a central city in central China, Wuhan has become a super-large city connecting north, south, east and west due to its convenient geographical location of the thoroughfare of nine provinces. Urban development has a significant influence and representation on regional ecological environment [30]. The terrain inside Wuhan is dominated by relatively flat hills and riverside plains below 50 m [31]. The area is crisscrossed by rivers and dotted with lakes of various sizes, with 166 lakes above 0.1 km2; the Yangtze River, the third largest river in the world, and its largest tributary, the Han River, pass through the city, dividing the center of Wuhan into three, forming a pattern of three towns, namely, Wuchang, Hankou and Hanyang [32].
The rivers and lakes in the Wuhan area are an interconnected “river and lake system”, and the formation of lakes is mainly related to fluvial geological processes [33], so the distribution pattern of lakes in Wuhan depends largely on the evolution of the Yangtze River, the Han River and other smaller rivers. According to the relationship between the formation of lake basins and fluvial geologic processes, the lakes in Wuhan can be categorized into four types: River Channel relic lake, Riverbank Breach Lake, Interfluvial Depression Lake, and Valley Barrier Lake (Figure 2). Valley Barrier Lake is the most numerous type of existing large lakes in Wuhan, and the most dominant type of lake on both sides of the main stream of the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River.
Due to the wide distribution of lakes, in the history of Wuhan’s urban construction, the formation and development of the city are closely related to lakes. Although the lake plays a vital role in regulating and storing flood water, improving water quality and maintaining ecological balance, in the past hundred years, the distribution and evolution of lakes in Wuhan have been restricting the urban expansion, including the increase in urban construction land and population growth.

2.2. Data Sources

This study mainly relies on high-precision historical maps of Wuhan and high-resolution Landsat series satellite remote sensing images. Regarding the selection of historical maps, three periods of 1:100,000 historical maps measured by modern cartographic techniques were selected, with high resolution and accuracy, and could accurately reflect the lake coverage information of Wuhan City in different periods (Table 1).
The Landsat series satellite remote sensing images provided by NASA were downloaded from the geospatial data cloud (http://www.gscloud.cn/ (accessed on 8 May 2022)), with a spatial resolution of 30 m. A total of three remote sensing images were downloaded from the same period of time with different orbital numbers (Table 2), with complete coverage of the whole territory of Wuhan City. Since the time zone of satellite data has a great influence on lake extraction, and the seasonal changes in lakes are more obvious, in order to minimize the differences caused by seasonal changes in lakes and ensure the comparability of the extraction results, the time period of the downloaded images is winter with less clouds.

2.3. Research Method

Image processing was mainly performed using ArcGIS 10.6 and ENVI 5.3 (Figure 3). The extraction of lake information from historical maps consists of three main steps: pre-processing (establishment of map coordinate system, map geographic calibration), creation of lake elements, and acquisition of lake attributes (contour, area, perimeter, etc.). The operation of remote sensing image processing includes remote sensing image preprocessing (including radiometric calibration, atmospheric calibration, geometric calibration, mosaic splicing, cropping, etc.), lake information extraction (obtaining NDMI grayscale image, supervision categorization) and obtaining lake vector map and lake attribute calculation. It is especially emphasized that after the implementation of supervision categorization, the cluster processing is carried out to remove the small spots in the image, the broken spots in the original classification result are classified into the background category and the lake shoreline is smoother.
This study of lake evolution mainly uses landscape fractal theory for lake characterization, including the shoreline development coefficient and the fractal dimension of the lake, and the relevant formulas are as follows:
(1)
Shoreline development coefficient:
D L = S L 2 π A 0
where SL is the length of the lake shoreline and A0 is the lake area. The shoreline development coefficient is an important index to indicate the morphological characteristics of lakes, which is used to reflect the complexity of the lake shoreline [34]. Generally speaking, the higher the value is, the more irregular the shoreline is, and the more tortuous and variable the shoreline is; on the contrary, the lower the value is, the more regular and simpler is the shoreline. The lake shoreline development coefficient is widely used in the classification and evaluation system of different lakes.
(2)
Lake fractal dimension:
F D = 2 I n P / 4 I n A
where P is the perimeter and A is the area. Fractal dimension is an index reflecting the complexity of the lake landscape, which is mainly used to illustrate the intensity of the impact of human activities on the lake [35]. The theoretical value of fractal dimension is between 1 and 2, and the normal calculation results of fractal dimension of lakes are generally in the range of 1 to 1.5. Generally speaking, the larger the value is, the more irregular the shape of the lake is, the more complex the geometric form is, and the less the disturbance is; when the value is closer to 1, it reflects the simpler the geometric form of the lake is, and the more regular the shape is, which seems to be square, and the stronger the similarity of the lake is, and the lake is subjected to a larger disturbance.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Sedimentary Characteristics and Origins of Lake

The sedimentary characteristics of different types of lakes in Wuhan are different (Figure 4). As shown in Figure 4a, the sedimentary stratigraphic structure of the river channel relic lake is generally manifested as a layer of riverbed sand deposited by the original channel under the lacustrine sediment, forming a “binary structure” composed of riverbed sand and lacustrine sediment. Because the river channel relic lake in Wuhan mainly developed on the flood plain, the “ binary structure” deposit was embedded in the flood plain deposit. Generally, the sedimentary strata structure of the riverbank breach lake is characterized by the development of floodplain sediments away from the Yangtze River side, and the development of fluvial channel sand near the Yangtze River side, as shown in Figure 4b. The sedimentary layer of the interfluvial depression lake is overlaid on the flood plain deposit like a big cake, and the stratigraphic structure is shown in Figure 4c. The lacustrine sediments of the valley barrier lake were deposited directly on Late Pleistocene Xiashu Loess, the lacustrine sediments and Xiashu Loess were separated by erosion surface, and the strata is para-conformity (Figure 4d).
The study of the origin of lakes is not only of great significance to this study of the evolution of modern lakes in Wuhan, but also a basic scientific problem of lake protection. The lake formation mechanism is also of great significance to the study of Quaternary hydrogeology and the climatic environment in Wuhan area [36]. The process of lake formation can be inferred from the sedimentary characteristics of the lake. A river channel relic lake is a lake formed by the water accumulation of abandoned rivers, and its basin was once part of the original river channel. Because the riverbanks burst during the flood period, the erosion pit is formed at the levee toe due to the strong erosion of the ground by high-speed water flow, and then the accumulation of water in the erosion pit is formed into the riverbank breach lake. The interfluvial depression lake is a lake formed by water accumulation in the low depression between two or more rivers. Because the natural levee of the river in the alluvial plain area is relatively developed, the geomorphic unit is mostly the combination of river channel, natural levee and flood plain.
However, the formation process of the valley barrier lake is relatively complicated. The rise and fall of the sea level under the control of global climate change changes the base level of erosion of the Yangtze River, thus triggering the linkage effect of sea, river and lake [37], which is the main controlling factor for the formation of valley barrier lakes. According to this, the formation process of such lakes can be divided into three stages (Figure 5). The first stage is the lake basin formation period (20~14 Ka BP). During the late Pleistocene Last Glacial Period, the Yangtze River was deepened downward, which led to the erosion of the ground composed of Xiashu Loess on both sides of the Yangtze River, thus forming a series of erosion depressions, which are the basin of the valley barrier lake formed in the later period (Figure 5A). The second stage is the lake formation period (14~7 Ka BP). With the rapid rise of the sea level in the deglaciation, the Yangtze River was backwater due to poor drainage, and the frequent floods in the Yangtze River during the deglaciation meant that the natural levees on both sides of the Yangtze River were formed and increased continuously. The formation of natural levees blocked the drainage of gully water in the upland area to the Yangtze River, resulting in the blockage of water and forming lakes (Figure 5B). The last stage is the lake development period (since 7 Ka BP). By 7500 years ago, the global climate entered the Holocene climatic optimum. Under the double action of increasing water flow from the Yangtze River and rising sea levels, the water level of the Yangtze River rose without ceasing, and the natural levees on both sides of the Yangtze River rose correspondingly. Valley barrier lakes continued to develop, gradually forming the present lake morphology (Figure 5C).

3.2. Trajectory of Lake Changes over a Century

In this study, we took the important lakes in the main urban areas of Wuhan (Wuchang area, Hankou area and Hanyang area) as the research object, combined with historical maps and remote sensing data to calculate the changes in lake size and quantity in the past 100 years. In order to test the consistency between these two types of data, the Dong Lake, Nan Lake and Moshui Lake on the 1973 historical map were compared with the results of the remote sensing interpretation in 1973 (see Table 3 for accuracy evaluation).
The results show that the accuracy of the lake coverage area for the same period of time for both data sets is higher than 96%, and the spatial consistency of the lake coverage between the images and the maps is higher than almost 80%. This indicates that the lake data obtained from historical maps are accurate during the period when there were no satellite images.
The severe decline in lakes in Wuhan has garnered widespread attention because of the rapid economic development in the region [16,20,40]. In this study, we counted and estimated the area of lakes in the same range within the main urban area of Wuhan in 1920, 1973 and 2019. Figure 6 shows the changes in the area and number of lakes in Wuhan over the past 100 years.
From Figure 6, it is found that the lake area in Wuhan is decreasing as a whole, and in the same study area, the lake area in Wuhan decreased from 2133.5 km2 in 1920 to 550.8 km2 in 2019, with a total decrease of 1582.7 km2 in 100 years, and an area shrinkage rate of 74.18%, which represents a significant change in the area. From the quantitative point of view, 48 lakes with more than 0.5 km2 in Wuhan in 1920, 30 lakes in Wuhan in 1973 and 41 lakes in Wuhan in the same study area as that of 1920 were extracted in 2019.
From the perspective of the three regions (Table 4), the lake shrinkage in Hankou region is the most significant, with a total decrease of 1013.1 km2, followed by Wuchang region, with an area decrease of 396.9 km2 and finally Hanyang region, with an area decrease of 172.7 km2; from the perspective of the different phases, the Wuhan lakes in the period of 1920~1976 have shrunk significantly, with an area decrease of 1477.6 km2, the rate of area shrinkage is 69.25% and the rate of area change in 1976~2019 is slowing down significantly, with an area shrinkage rate of 16.02%.

3.3. Changes in Lake Characteristic Indices

In order to clearly show the evolutionary characteristics of lakes in Wuhan City during the century, firstly, using the fractal dimension of lake and the coefficient of shoreline development as the characteristic index of lakes, the characteristics of lakes in Wuhan city in the past hundred years were analyzed. It was concluded that the changes in fractal dimension and the shoreline development coefficient of lakes in Wuhan city showed synchronization as a whole, with occasional fluctuations. The values of fractal dimension are concentrated between 1 and 1.4 (Figure 7), the values of shoreline development coefficient are concentrated between 1 and 8 (Figure 8) and the numerical changes are repetitive, but the fractal dimensions and shoreline development coefficient of the lakes in the past 100 years have been becoming smaller, and the fractal dimensions of the lakes are coming closer to 1, which indicates that the lakes are subjected to greater human interference and the geometries of the lakes tend to be simpler.
Taking the changes in the lake characteristic index of Dong Lake as an example (Figure 9), it is divided into three stages to illustrate the evolution of lakes in Wuhan in different periods:
(1)
Natural evolution stage: As shown in Figure 7 and Figure 8, the lake characteristic indices in Wuhan are on the whole higher in 1920, and the shoreline development coefficient and fractal dimension of Dong Lake are 4.727 and 1.164 (Figure 9a). The shape of Dong Lake was mainly affected by the natural environment and climate. It shows that the lake shoreline in Wuhan City at this time is naturalized as a whole, the lake branches are more complex, the lake is relatively less affected by human activities, and the natural properties of the lake are obvious.
Factitious construction stage: In this stage, Wuhan’s urban construction, including the construction of roads, infrastructure, bridges and the embryonic stage of real estate development, have encroached on the lake to varying degrees. In 1973, the shoreline of the lake began to change significantly. Under the influence of human activities, the shape of the Dong Lake became irregular, and its fractal dimension was high (Figure 9b).
(2)
The shoreline development coefficient and fractal dimension of Dong Lake are 6.656 and 1.205, respectively, which have significantly increased compared with the 1920 values. From the point of view of lake integrity, due to the increase in urban construction land, the lake branch of Dong Lake has been extensively developed due to human activities. As is shown in the red circle in Figure 9b, the branch on the north side of the Dong Lake began to break up, the reason is that part of the water surface north of the Dong Lake was divided due to urban construction, that is, today’s Yangchun Lake. In addition, there are more large-scale industrial land on the east bank of the Dong Lake, such as Wuhan Iron and Steel Company. The lake area is gradually transformed into industrial land, and the lake becomes fragmented [41].
Factitious control stage: By 2019, the shoreline development coefficient and fractal dimension of many lakes are low. At this time, the lake in Wuhan was significantly affected by human activities, and frequent human activities interfered with the natural form of the lake. With the expansion of the urban built-up area, a large number of lake branches were filled in, the lake branches were seriously cut, and the boundary of the lake became simple and regular, and the shape of the lake tended to be simplified. At this time, the shoreline development coefficient and fractal dimension of the Dong Lake are 4.662 and 1.172, respectively, which are significantly lower than 1973. The red circle in Figure 9c shows that some branches on the north side of Dong Lake have disappeared in 2019.
(3)
At the same time, it can be seen from the interpretation of remote sensing satellite images in 2019 that the artificial solidification of the shoreline of the Dong Lake has reached 22 km, which is closely related to the construction of the Dong Lake Scenic Area of Wuhan in this period. Due to the rapid expansion of Wuchang, Dong Lake soon changed from “suburban lake” to “ urban lake”, and Dong Lake became a huge park for citizens to play. Since the reform and opening up, the scenic area of the Dong Lake has been expanding, becoming the first batch of national key scenic spots and National AAAAA level tourist attractions in China. Accompanied by the continuous solidification of the shoreline, the area of the lake is gradually stable, the current Dong Lake native natural shoreline accounts for only 16%, the artificial ecological shoreline is about 28% and the artificial hardened shoreline is 56%. In 16 connecting channels with a total length of 43 km, the artificial hardening rate is about 88% [42].

3.4. Response of Lake Evolution to Urban Expansion

The evolution of lakes in Wuhan in the past hundred years has nothing to do with the changes in natural factors such as precipitation and temperature but is closely related to the social development and urban construction process. As can be seen from Figure 10, the area of the lake gradually shrinks with the increase in the permanent urban population and the expansion of the urban area. In the process of development, there is always a dynamic and reciprocal relationship between city and lake. Urban expansion, levee construction and change in land use will all affect the evolution of lakes, and the evolution of lakes in the main urban area of Wuhan is mainly influenced by the urban expansion. Therefore, this paper mainly discusses the mechanism of lake evolution based on the different ways of lake transformation by human beings in urban expansion.
Since the establishment of Wuhan City in the Republic of China, Wuhan City has entered a period of integrated development of the three towns. Due to the limited space along the river, the urban development of Wuhan began to move to the lake area of the plain, entered a stage of expansion around the lake and the ecological environment of the lake began to be frequently disturbed by human activities. The two fastest periods of urban expansion in Wuhan are from 1949 to 1966 and since 1982, which are also the climax of the expansion of the city around the lake, and Wuhan entered the stage of conquering nature for development [5]. Due to the different geological environments and different types of lakes in the three towns of Wuhan, there are differences in the means of expansion around the lake. The influence of urban expansion on lake evolution in Wuhan mainly consists of the three modes of dike construction, lake filling and development around lakes.

3.4.1. Hankou Area: Dike-Draining-Land

Hankou area is located in the interfluvial depression among the Yangtze River, the Han River and the Fu River, with a dense network of lakes and rivers, which was originally a small piece of land in water overgrown with water and grass before the Ming Dynasty and was under the jurisdiction of Hanyang County. In the early period, Hankou developed mainly along the natural dykes along the north bank of the Han River and Yangtze River, and the construction of dykes led to the development of Hankou from the natural dykes to the plains. Thus, the construction of dykes played a crucial role in the development of the Hankou area [43].
Due to the rapid development of Hankou in the late Qing Dynasty, the contradiction of insufficient urban space was most prominent, and the expansion around the lake bore its brunt. Hankou area belongs to the original Han River delta, with low terrain and lakes all over. Most of these lakes belong to the category of interfluvial depression lakes, such as West Lake, East Lake, etc., which are formed in the lowland between the Han River and the Fu River; Hou lake, Xiaoxiang Lake, etc. are formed between the Yangtze River and the Fu River. These lakes are large in size, with a wide and shallow basin, in the shape of a disk; the water is shallow, generally 1~2 m. The main way of expansion around the lake is “Dike-Draining-Land”. Of the two rapid expansions of Hankou city since the late Qing Dynasty, one is the construction of Zhang Gong Dike and the demise of Hou Lake; the other is the construction of the East–West Lake Dike and the disappearance of West Lake and East Lake. These areas are now the main urban areas of Hankou (Figure 11).
The Zhang Gong Dike became a major barrier against the floods from the west and north of Hankou in modern China, which greatly reduced the frequent flooding of the Hou lake in Hankou, and Hankou was not flooded frequently. Zhang Gong Dike, like a huge arm spreading around, encircled a large area of land and water both inside and outside of Hankou. The natural waters and water systems that were originally linked together were cut off by the Zhang Gong Dike, a large area of land in and outside of Hankou naturally appeared and the natural siltation and elevation increase in some areas led to the natural expansion of the land [44]. After the construction of Zhang Gong Dike, land-filling activities began in the Hankou area, more than 100,000 acres of low-lying land in Hou Lake, which is the former channel of the Xiang River, has risen to become land, and the urban area has expanded by seven times, which has created extremely important conditions for the development of Hankou [45].
The construction of the East–West Lake Dike set a new starting point for Hankou’s urban construction. The East–West Lake Dike turned a 451 km2 area of low-lying terrain, surrounded by water on three sides, which flooded frequently and was overgrown with reeds and lake grass into rich land with good fields, pastures and fishponds [46]. Large-scale reclamation has become an important reason for the significant shrinkage in the lake area in Hankou area; the West Lake in Hankou area disappeared, the East Lake shrank into a number of small lakes, and Jinyin Lake, Dugong Lake, Huangshihai Lake and other lakes of a very small scale are still preserved.

3.4.2. Wuchang and Hanyang Areas: Development Around the Lake

Most of the lakes in the Wuchang and Hanyang area belong to the valley barrier lake category on the denudation low terrain. These lakes are characterized by curved shores, dendritic branching and depths of 2 to 4 m. The curved bays are interspersed with headlands or spouts. The development coefficient of the lake shoreline reaches 5–7 [5]. Since the centers of these lakes are relatively deep, the development of lake branches is relatively shallow. The main way of expansion around the lake is to block the branches and lakeshores around the lake. Since the Reform and opening up, some larger lakes have become urban lakes.
From 1966 to 1996, the development around the lake in Wuchang area was mainly in the north of She Hill to Yujia Hill line, and Sha Lake had become an urban lake by the 1980s. After that, the scope of urban expansion began to shift to the perimeter of Dong Lake, which had become urban lake by the end of the last century. After 1996, the most significant changes in the urban development of the Wuchang area took place in the area south of She Hill to Yujia Hill line. For example, by 2000, Nan Lake had been partially occupied and divided into two lakes in the east and west due to the construction of roads and residential areas, and the natural lake branch in the lakeshore area has been hardened and filled. And then by 2009, the whole South Lake lakeshore area was encroached by densely packed buildings, and the West Lake surface of Nan Lake, which had already been divided, was again encroached upon, with the form of a square [47].
In 1966, the inland boundary of the city was limited to the triangular area sandwiched between the Yangtze River and Han River. In 1982, the lakeshore development stage began, and the speed of development in Hanyang accelerated. By 1996, the pattern of development around the lake around the Moshui Lake in the northern part of Hanyang had basically been formed and it gradually developed into an urban lake. After 1996, the development around the lake was in full swing, and a series of lakes such as the Sanjiao Lake, the Beitaizi Lake, the Nantaizi Lake, the Tang Lake and the Wanjia Lake in the southern part of Hanyang successively also became urban lakes.
To summarize, the relationship between urban and lake areas in Wuhan in general has undergone a transformation from “City surrounded by lake” to “lake surrounded by city”. The urban expansion has caused the demise of lakes and the disappearance of branches of lake in different ways, and the values of lake characteristic indexes, such as the shoreline development coefficient and the lake fractal dimension, have become lower, resulting in the characteristics of the lake shoreline homogenization and the simplicity of the morphology. With the expansion of the urban area, the original river and lake space is greatly crowded, resulting in the separation of rivers and lakes and the independence of lakes, which brings a series of problems such as the safety of urban flood control and the lake ecological environment [48,49].
In the future, the development and utilization of lakes in Wuhan should still be carried out in accordance with the principle of sustainable development of the lake environment, based on the geographic location and natural attributes of different lakes, combined with the needs of urban development in the lake area, and the development and utilization and the management and protection of the lake area in an orderly manner.

4. Conclusions

On the basis of this study on the origin of different types of lakes, based on the high-precision historical maps and modern remote sensing image data of Wuhan city, this study used geographic information technology to reconstruct the evolution process of lakes in Wuhan City in the last hundred years from the early 20th century to 2019. It was found that from 1920 to 2019, the lake area in Wuhan City decreased by 1582.7 km2 in total, with an area shrinkage rate of 74.18%, and the geometrical form of the lakes tended to be simpler and more regular. The evolution of lakes in the Hankou area is mainly affected by the construction of dykes and lake filling, and most of the lakes are resolved and fragmented under the influence of urban expansion, whereas the evolution of lakes in Wuchang and Hanyang is mainly caused by the urban construction around the lakes, many lake branches are cut for various urban constructions and the shape of the lake tends to be simple and regular under the influence of urban expansion. This study is of great significance to fill in the history of lake evolution in Wuhan before the popularization of remote sensing, and to guide the rational development of lakes in Wuhan and the sustainable and healthy development of Wuhan.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, C.L.; data curation, G.L.; formal analysis, G.L.; funding acquisition, Y.Z. and C.L.; investigation, G.L.; methodology, G.L.; project administration, C.L.; resources, C.L.; software, G.L.; supervision, Y.Z.; validation, Y.Z.; visualization, Y.Z.; writing—original draft, G.L.; writing—review and editing, C.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 41871019 and 41672355) and provincial projects of Hubei: “Wuhan Multi-factor Urban Geological Survey Demonstration Project” (Grant No. WHDYS-2018-007).

Data Availability Statement

Data are available upon request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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Figure 1. The map of location of study area and distribution of main lakes.
Figure 1. The map of location of study area and distribution of main lakes.
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Figure 2. Main types and representative lakes in Wuhan area: (a) River channel relic lake: Jinyin Lake in Hankou in 2020; (b) riverbank breach lake: Daokou Lake in Qingshan in 1966; (c) interfluvial depression lake: East Lake and West Lake in Hankou in 1927; (d) valley barrier lake: Moshui Lake in Hanyang in the 1960s.
Figure 2. Main types and representative lakes in Wuhan area: (a) River channel relic lake: Jinyin Lake in Hankou in 2020; (b) riverbank breach lake: Daokou Lake in Qingshan in 1966; (c) interfluvial depression lake: East Lake and West Lake in Hankou in 1927; (d) valley barrier lake: Moshui Lake in Hanyang in the 1960s.
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Figure 3. Flowchart of image processing.
Figure 3. Flowchart of image processing.
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Figure 4. Sedimentary strata structure of different types of lake: (a) river channel relic lake; (b) riverbank breach lake; (c) interfluvial depression lake; (d) valley barrier lake. 1 Modern lacustrine sediment; 2 fluvial channel sand; 3 floodplain sandy clay; 4 Late Pleistocene Xiashu Loess; 5 Yangtze River; 6 lakes.
Figure 4. Sedimentary strata structure of different types of lake: (a) river channel relic lake; (b) riverbank breach lake; (c) interfluvial depression lake; (d) valley barrier lake. 1 Modern lacustrine sediment; 2 fluvial channel sand; 3 floodplain sandy clay; 4 Late Pleistocene Xiashu Loess; 5 Yangtze River; 6 lakes.
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Figure 5. The stage division of the formation process of valley barrier lakes: the sea level change curve was drawn according to reference [38,39]; A: first stage; B: second stage; C: last stage.
Figure 5. The stage division of the formation process of valley barrier lakes: the sea level change curve was drawn according to reference [38,39]; A: first stage; B: second stage; C: last stage.
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Figure 6. The changes in the area and number of lakes within the main urban area of Wuhan over the past 100 years.
Figure 6. The changes in the area and number of lakes within the main urban area of Wuhan over the past 100 years.
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Figure 7. Changes in lake fractal dimension in Wuhan.
Figure 7. Changes in lake fractal dimension in Wuhan.
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Figure 8. Changes in the lake shoreline development coefficient in Wuhan.
Figure 8. Changes in the lake shoreline development coefficient in Wuhan.
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Figure 9. Changes in Dong Lake shoreline contours in different periods: (a) the year 1920; (b) the year 1973; (c) the year 2019; red cycle: areas with obvious changes in shoreline contours.
Figure 9. Changes in Dong Lake shoreline contours in different periods: (a) the year 1920; (b) the year 1973; (c) the year 2019; red cycle: areas with obvious changes in shoreline contours.
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Figure 10. Analysis of influencing factors of lake evolution in Wuhan.
Figure 10. Analysis of influencing factors of lake evolution in Wuhan.
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Figure 11. Zhang Gong Dike and East–West Lake Dike in Hankou Area: drawn according to reference [43].
Figure 11. Zhang Gong Dike and East–West Lake Dike in Hankou Area: drawn according to reference [43].
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Table 1. Table of details of historical maps.
Table 1. Table of details of historical maps.
Name of MapYear of CartographyScaleCartographic Unit
Topographic map of the core area of Wuhan19201:100,000Hubei Army Survey Bureau
Map of Wuhan city19521:100,000Construction Bureau of Wuhan Municipal People’s Government
Map of Wuhan city19731:100,000Surveying and Mapping Bureau of the General Staff Department of the Chinese People’s Liberation Army
Table 2. Details of remote sensing images.
Table 2. Details of remote sensing images.
YearSensorAcquisition TimeOrbit Number
2000Landsat 5 TM31 October 2000123-38
31 October 2000123-39
8 October 2000122-39
2019Landsat 8 OLI14 November 2019122-39
7 December 2019123-39
21 January 2019123-38
Table 3. The accuracy evaluation of lake extraction results from historical maps.
Table 3. The accuracy evaluation of lake extraction results from historical maps.
Typical LakesA (km2)B (km2)A/B(%)C (km2)C/B(%)(A − C)/A(%)(B − C)/A(%)
Moshui Lake3.753.996.152.9274.8722.1326.13
Nan Lake9.9210.7592.288.4178.2315.2223.59
Dong Lake34.2433.57102.0028.3684.4817.1715.22
Total47.9148.2296.8139.6979.1918.1821.65
A: lake area of the 1973 historical maps data; B: lake area of the 1973 remote sensing data; A/B: area consistency accuracy; C: overlapped spatial area; C/B: spatial consistency accuracy; (A − C)/A: commission error of historical maps area; (B − C)/A: omission error of historical maps area.
Table 4. The changes in lake area in three different areas of Wuhan City over the past 100 years (km2).
Table 4. The changes in lake area in three different areas of Wuhan City over the past 100 years (km2).
YearWuchangHanyangHankouTotal
1920808.1245.51079.92133.5
1973499.176.990.4655.9
2019411.272.866.8550.8
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Li, G.; Zhang, Y.; Li, C. Lake Evolution and Its Response to Urban Expansion in Wuhan City in the Last Hundred Years Based on Historical Maps and Remote Sensing Images. Remote Sens. 2025, 17, 1563. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs17091563

AMA Style

Li G, Zhang Y, Li C. Lake Evolution and Its Response to Urban Expansion in Wuhan City in the Last Hundred Years Based on Historical Maps and Remote Sensing Images. Remote Sensing. 2025; 17(9):1563. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs17091563

Chicago/Turabian Style

Li, Guoqing, Yufen Zhang, and Chang’an Li. 2025. "Lake Evolution and Its Response to Urban Expansion in Wuhan City in the Last Hundred Years Based on Historical Maps and Remote Sensing Images" Remote Sensing 17, no. 9: 1563. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs17091563

APA Style

Li, G., Zhang, Y., & Li, C. (2025). Lake Evolution and Its Response to Urban Expansion in Wuhan City in the Last Hundred Years Based on Historical Maps and Remote Sensing Images. Remote Sensing, 17(9), 1563. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs17091563

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