Surface Deformation Analysis of the Houston Area Using Time Series Interferometry and Emerging Hot Spot Analysis
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Geologic Setting
3. Data and Methods
4. Results and Analysis
4.1. Ground Deformation Rates
4.2. Groundwater Withdrawal
4.3. Oil and Gas Well Clusters
4.4. Fault Mapping
5. Discussion on Causes of Subsidence
- Groundwater extraction: the primary cause of subsidence in the Gulf of Mexico is attributed to large-scale groundwater withdrawal since 1906. The area of the “subsidence bowl” (which covers a surface area of approximately 10,000 km2) was identified to have experienced over 3 m of subsidence [38]. In this area, groundwater was the main source of water supply for households, industry, and agriculture. In addition, demand for groundwater sharply increased with rapid population growth [42].
- Hydrocarbon withdrawal: one of the well-known subsidence incidents attributed to oil/gas pumping happened in the Goose Creek Oil Field, Houston, exceeding 110 mm/year [44].
- Active normal faulting: this can be seen in seismic reflection data extending to depths of 10 km and includes surface scarps. The long-term slip rates along these faults are unknown, but recent GNSS studies suggest 7–11 mm of vertical displacement per year along a few faults in the Houston area [9,30]. Similarly, Gagliano interpreted 20–30 years of tide gauge and releveling data and reported substantial vertical movement along growth faults in coastal Louisiana, resulting in considerable loss of land area to the sea [46]. Fault reactivation in subsiding areas has also been investigated. For example, fault reactivation by interaction with fluids was studied by several researchers [47,48,49]. Geological observations and numerical modeling demonstrated activation of pre-existing regional faults over areas undergoing subsidence [50,51,52,53,54,55,56]. Donnelly summarized several examples of damage and reactivation of faults in the United Kingdom’s urban areas undergoing subsidence [57]. Paul Segal dedicated a chapter of the textbook to the physics of poroelastic effects on faulting, as pore-fluid pressure can change frictional resistance on faults [58]. These and many other studies of subsidence disagree on the rates and relative contributions of several mechanisms; these inconsistencies come from these studies’ differences in time scales, depths, and spatial extent.
- Sediment compaction: alluvial aquifers in the Gulf Coast region are made up of semi-consolidated silt, clay, and sand layers. As water levels decrease, the fluid pressure in the aquifer also drops. The air-filled pores lower the strength of the aquifer skeletal system and cause subsidence [1,6,59]. Typically, aquifers undergo periodic fluctuations and produce reversible subsidence of a few centimeters [1]. Several researchers associated increased subsidence rates with increased sediment thickness in the Gulf Coast region [60,61]. These observations are based on generalized stratigraphy and are not qualitative. However, based on modeling data in the Netherlands, sediment compaction may be a minor factor. Kooi and De Vries suggested 0.1 to 1 mm/yr of subsidence due to Holocene sediment compaction in a relatively similar setting in the Netherlands [62]. Similarly, Monte Carlo simulations of sediment compaction in Louisiana, which has the same type of sediments as Houston, found only a few mm of subsidence on a regional scale [63]. However, sediment compaction could be significant locally.
- Salt extraction: subsurface salt withdrawal and migration are linked to normal faulting and sediment loading. Seni and Jackson estimated an approximate uplift of 0.45 mm/year for Texas salt domes during the Cenozoic [64]. They considered these growth rates to be discontinuous, contrary to prior notions of being cyclic.
- Water loading during extreme flooding: severe subsidence raises the prospect of flooding and produces a negative feedback loop. The hefty weight of floodwater from severe flooding compresses the sediments in the subsurface [1,7,59]. Generally, unconsolidated aquifers are elastic and can rebound after compaction. However, regions that have subsided lack this ability. Therefore, flooding can contribute to compacting the soil and drive subsidence [59]. Houston has experienced weather events, such as Hurricane Harvey, when over 150 cm of rain fell within six days [65]. GNSS data indicate that post-Hurricane Harvey deformation ranges from subsidence of ~68 mm to uplift of ~5 mm, with significant subsidence rates in northern and southwestern Harris County [66]. Using InSAR, it is estimated that 89% of the areas inundated by Hurricane Harvey experienced subsidence at rates greater than 3 mm/year [15].
5.1. Groundwater and Subsidence
5.2. Faulting and Subsidence
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Khan, S.D.; Gadea, O.C.A.; Tello Alvarado, A.; Tirmizi, O.A. Surface Deformation Analysis of the Houston Area Using Time Series Interferometry and Emerging Hot Spot Analysis. Remote Sens. 2022, 14, 3831. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14153831
Khan SD, Gadea OCA, Tello Alvarado A, Tirmizi OA. Surface Deformation Analysis of the Houston Area Using Time Series Interferometry and Emerging Hot Spot Analysis. Remote Sensing. 2022; 14(15):3831. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14153831
Chicago/Turabian StyleKhan, Shuhab D., Otto C. A. Gadea, Alyssa Tello Alvarado, and Osman A. Tirmizi. 2022. "Surface Deformation Analysis of the Houston Area Using Time Series Interferometry and Emerging Hot Spot Analysis" Remote Sensing 14, no. 15: 3831. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14153831