High Performance Computing in Satellite SAR Interferometry: A Critical Perspective
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. SAR Interferometric Processing
2.1. SAR Interferometry Fundamentals
2.2. SAR Raw Data Focusing
2.3. Image Coregistration
2.4. Interferograms Formation and Filtering
2.5. Phase Unwrapping Operations
2.6. Multi-Temporal Interferometric SAR Techniques
3. Operational SAR Systems and Applications
3.1. New-Generation and Forthcoming Spaceborne SAR Sensors
3.2. InSAR Applications and Products
4. High Performance Computing: Fundamentals Concepts and Models
4.1. Parallel Computing Architectures
4.2. Parallel Programming Models for HPC Systems
4.3. Performance Metrics
4.4. Cloud Computing vs. HPC
5. Selected HPC Approaches in InSAR Fundamental Functional Stages
5.1. SAR Data Focusing
5.2. SAR Image Coregistration
5.3. InSAR Filtering
5.4. Phase Unwrapping
6. Selected MT-InSAR Techniques Using HPC or Cloud-Based Platforms
6.1. MT-InSAR Processing Using HPC
6.2. MT-InSAR Processing via Cloud-Based Platforms and Services
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Sensor | Frequency | Agency/Country | Access | Revisit-Time | Resolution | Polarization | Frame Size | Year |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
TanDEM-L | L-band (1275 GHz, λ =24.6 cm) | German Aerospace Centre (DLR) | Free and open | 16 days | 7 m | Single, dual, quad mode | dual-pol mode 350 km quad-pol mode: 175 km | ≥2024 |
BIOMASS | P band (435 MHz, λ = 70 cm) | European Space Agency (ESA) | Free and open | 17 days | 60 × 50 m | quad-pol | 50 × 50 km | ≥2023 |
NISAR | S-band (3.2 GHz, λ = 9 cm) | NASA ISRO | Free and open | 12 days | 3–10 m | Single: HH,VV | >240 km | ≥2023 |
Dual: HH/HV, VV/VH | ||||||||
Compact: RH/RV | ||||||||
Quasi-Quad: HH/HV, VH/VV | ||||||||
L-band (1.26 GHz, λ = 24 cm) | Single: HH, VV Dual: HH/HV, VV/VH Compact: RH/RV Quad: HH/HV/VH/VV | |||||||
RCM | C-band (5.4 GHz, λ = 5.6 cm) | Canadian Space Agency | Commercial | Satellite: 12 days Constellation: 4 days | 3–100 m | Single: HH, VV, VH, HV Dual: HH/HV, VV/VH, HH/VV Compact Quad | 20 × 20–500 × 500 km | 2019– |
PAZ SAR | X band (9.65 GHz, λ = 3.5 cm) | Space Agency of Spain | Commercial | 11 days | Stripmap: 3–6 m ScanSAR: 16 × 6 m spotlight: 1–2 m | HH/VV/HV/VH (single or dual) | Stripmap: 30–2000 × 30 km ScanSAR: spotlight: 10 × 10 km | 2018– |
TerraSAR-X Tandem-X | X band (9.65 GHz λ = 3.5 cm) | German Aerospace Centre (DLR) | Commercial; limited proposal-based scientific | 11 days | Spotlight: 0.2 × 1.0–1.7 × 3.5 m Stripmap: 3 × 3 m ScanSAR: 18–40 m | Single: HH, VV Dual: HH/VV, HH/HV, VV/VH Twin: HH/VV, HH/VH,VV/VH | Spotlight: 3–10 km Stripmap: 50 × 3 0 km ScanSAR: 150 × 100- 200 × 200 km | 2007–2010– |
COSMO-SkyMed | X band (9.6 GHz λ = 3.5 cm) | Italian Space Agency (ASI) | Commercial; limited proposal-based scientific | Satellite: 16 days Constellation: 1–8 days | Spotlight: ≤1 m Stripmap: 3–15 m ScanSAR: 30–100 m | Single: HH, VV, HV, VH Dual: HH/HV, HH/VV, VV/VH | Spotlight: 10 × 10 km Stripmap: 40 × 40 km ScanSAR: 100 × 100–200 × 200 km | 2007– |
Sentinel-1 | C band (5.4 GHz, λ = 5.6 cm) | European Space Agency (ESA) | Free and open | Satellite: 12 days Constellation: 6 days | Stripmap: 5 × 5 m Interferometric Wide Swath (IW): 5 × 2 0m Extra Wide Swath (EW): 20–40 m | Single: HH, VV Dual: HH/HV, VV/VH | Stripmap: 375 km IW: 250 km EW: 400 km | 2014– |
RADARSAT-2 | C band (5.4 GHz, λ = 5.6 cm) | Canadian Space Agency | Commercial | 24 days | Spotlight: ~1.5 m Stripmap: ~3 × 3–25 × 25 m ScanSAR: 35 × 35–100 × 100 m | Single: HH, VV, HV, VH Dual: HH/HV, VV/VH Quad: HH/HV/VH/VV | Spotlight: 18 × 8 km Stripmap: 20–17 0 m ScanSAR: 300 × 300–500 × 500 km | 2007– |
SAOCOM | L band (1275 GHz, λ = 24.6 cm) | Argentina National Space Activities Commission (CONAE) | Commercial; limited proposal-based scientific | Satellite: 16 days Constellation: 8 day | Stripmap: 10 × 10 m TopSAR: 100 × 100 m | Single: HH, VV Dual: HH/HV, VV/VH Quad: HH/HV/VH/VV | Stripmap: >65 km TopSAR: 320 km | 2018– |
ALOS-2 PALSAR-2 | L band (1275 GHz, λ = 24.6 cm) | Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) | Commercial; limited proposal-based scientific | 14 days | Spotlight: 1 × 3 m Stripmap: 3–10 m ScanSAR: 25–100 m | Single: HH, VV, HV, VH Dual: HH/HV, VV/VH Quad: HH/HV/VH/VV | Spotlight: 25 × 25 km Stripmap: 55 × 70–70 × 70 km ScanSAR: 355 × 355 km | 2014– |
Processing Stage | Selected Works | Parallelism | Tools | Year |
---|---|---|---|---|
Focusing | [181,182] | Multithreading | OpenMP | 2016 |
[183,184] | GPU-based | OpenCL | 2019 | |
[185] | GPU-based | CUDA | 2020 | |
[188] | GPU-based | CUDA | 2014 | |
[186] | GPUs + CPUs | CUDA/OpenMP | 2016 | |
[189] | multi-GPU | CUDA/MPI | 2018 | |
[187] | GPU-based | CUDA | 2016 | |
Coregistration | [190] | Multiprocessing | MPI | 2002 |
[49] | Multithreading | OpenMP | 2021 | |
[191] | GPU-based | CUDA | 2014 | |
[192] | GPU-based | CUDA | 2020 | |
Phase Unwrapping | [198] | Dual-level | MPI/OpenMP | 2015 |
[196,197] | Dual-level | MP/OpenMP | 2015 | |
[199] | Multithreading | OpenMP | 2015 | |
[200] | GPU-based | CUDA | 2014 | |
[201] | GPU-based | CUDA | 2017 | |
InSAR Filtering | [190] | Multiprocessing | MPI | 2015 |
[194] | GPU-based | CUDA | 2016 | |
[195] | GPU-based | OpenCL | 2020 |
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Imperatore, P.; Pepe, A.; Sansosti, E. High Performance Computing in Satellite SAR Interferometry: A Critical Perspective. Remote Sens. 2021, 13, 4756. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13234756
Imperatore P, Pepe A, Sansosti E. High Performance Computing in Satellite SAR Interferometry: A Critical Perspective. Remote Sensing. 2021; 13(23):4756. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13234756
Chicago/Turabian StyleImperatore, Pasquale, Antonio Pepe, and Eugenio Sansosti. 2021. "High Performance Computing in Satellite SAR Interferometry: A Critical Perspective" Remote Sensing 13, no. 23: 4756. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13234756