Environmental Sustainability: A Case of Policy Implementation Failure?
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
3. Results
3.1. General Trends
3.2. The Causes of Policy Failure
- Incomplete specification of aims or objectives;
- Inappropriate agency for implementation;
- Conflicting objectives within or between policies;
- Incentive failures;
- Conflicting directives from agencies or senior official;
- Limited competence of agency or those tasked with implementation;
- Inadequate administrative resources to support policy implementation; and,
- A failure to communicate with the affected community.
4. Discussion
4.1. Interrelated Structural Causes
4.2. Implementation Traps
4.3. Knowledge/Scope Issues
4.4. Comparison of Policy Failure in Different Contexts
5. Conclusions
6. Further Research
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
- International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN); United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP); World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF). World Conservation Strategy; IUCN/UNEP/WWF: Gland, Switzerland, 1980. [Google Scholar]
- World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED). Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future; United Nations: New York, NY, USA, 1987. [Google Scholar]
- Kanakoudis, V.; Karatzas, G.; Keramaris, E. International Conference on Efficient & Sustainable Water Systems Management toward Worth Living Development, 2nd EWaS 2016. Procedia Eng. 2016, 162, 1–2. [Google Scholar]
- Howes, M. Politics and the Environment: Risk and the Role of Government and Industry; Allen & Unwin: Sydney, Australia, 2005. [Google Scholar]
- United Nations (UN). Sustainable Development Goals; United Nations: New York, NY, USA, 2015. [Google Scholar]
- Fukuda, S.; Murakami, M.; Noda, K.; Oki, T. How Achieving the Millennium Development Goals Increases Subjective Well-Being in Developing Nations. Sustainability 2016, 8, 189. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Althaus, C.; Bridgman, P.; Davis, G. The Australian Policy Handbook, 5th ed.; Allen & Unwin: Sydney, Austrilia, 2012. [Google Scholar]
- Gómez-Baggethun, E.; Naredo, J.M. In search of lost time: The rise and fall of limits to growth in international sustainability policy. Sustain. Sci. 2015, 10, 385–395. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Šoja, S.J.; Anokić, A.; Jelić, D.B.; Maletić, R. Ranking EU Countries According to Their Level of Success in Achieving the Objectives of the Sustainable Development Strategy. Sustainability 2016, 8, 306. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rockstrom, J.; Steffen, W.; Noone, K.; Persson, A.; Chapin, F.S.; Lambin, E.F.; Lenton, T.M.; Scheffer, M.; Folke, C.; Schellnhuber, H.J.; et al. A safe operating space for humanity. Nature 2009, 461, 472–475. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- United Nations Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (UNMEA). Ecosystems and Human Wellbeing: Synthesis Report; Island Press: Washington DC, WA, USA, 2005. [Google Scholar]
- United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Global Environmental Outlook 5 Report; UNEP: Nairobi, Kenya, 2012. [Google Scholar]
- World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF). Living Planet Report 2014: Species and Spaces, People and Places; WWF: Gland, Switzerland, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis; Working Group I Contribution to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2013. [Google Scholar]
- Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability; Working Group II Contribution to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change; Working Group III Contribution to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- Kanakoudis, V.; Tsitsifli, S.; Papadopoulou, A. Integrating the Carbon and Water Footprints’ Costs in the Water Framework Directive 2000/60/EC Full Water Cost Recovery Concept: Basic Principles towards Their Reliable Calculation and Socially Just Allocation. Water 2012, 4, 45–62. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kanakoudis, V.; Papadopoulou, A. Allocating the cost of the carbon footprint produced along a supply chain, among the stakeholders involved. J. Water Clim. Chang. 2014, 5, 556–568. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kanakoudis, V. Three alternative ways to allocate the cost of the CF produced in a water supply and distribution system. Desalinat. Water Treat. 2014, 54, 2212–2222. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- World Health Organisation (WHO). WHO Global Urban Ambient Air Pollution Database. Available online: http://www.who.int/phe/health_topics/outdoorair/databases/cities/en/ (accessed on 16 June 2016).
- Agbonifo, P. Risk Management and Regulatory Failure in the Oil and Gas Industry in Nigeria: Reflections on the Impact of Environmental Degradation in the Niger Delta Region. J. Sustain. Dev. 2016, 9, 126–131. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hou, Y.; Xu, J. Socialism and Ecological Crises: A View from China. J. Sustain. Dev. 2012, 5. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Enu, D.; Ugwu, U. Human Security and Sustainable Peace Building in Nigeria: The Niger Delta Perspective. J. Sustain. Dev. 2011, 4, 254–259. [Google Scholar]
- McGuire, C.; Perivier, H. The Nonexistence of Sustainability in International Maritime Shipping: Issues for Consideration. J. Sustain. Dev. 2011, 4, 72–78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Asara, V.; Otero, I.; Demaria, F.; Corbera, E. Socially sustainable degrowth as a social–ecological transformation: Repoliticizing sustainability. Sustain. Sci. 2015, 10, 375–384. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Escobar, A. Degrowth, postdevelopment, and transitions: A preliminary conversation. Sustain. Sci. 2015, 10, 451–462. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pickering, C.M.; Byrne, J. The benefits of publishing systematic quantitative literature reviews for PhD candidates and other early career researchers. High. Edu. Res. Dev. 2014, 33, 534–548. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kraft, M.E.; Kamieniecki, S. The Oxford Handbook of U.S. Environmental Policy; Oxford University Press: Oxford, UK, 2012. [Google Scholar]
- Patton, C.V.; Sarwicki, D.S. Basic Methods of Policy Analysis and Planning; Prentice Hall: Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA, 1993. [Google Scholar]
- Aldy, J.E.; Hrubovcak, J.; Vasavada, U. The role of technology in sustaining agriculture and the environment. Ecol. Econ. 1998, 26, 81–96. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Devkota, S.R. Environment management in Nepal: Unmanaging the manageable. Ecol. Econ. 1999, 28, 31–40. [Google Scholar]
- Quesenberry, L. Ecotourism: A hyperbolic sustainable development technique. Dickinson J. Environ. Law Policy 2001, 9, 473–506. [Google Scholar]
- Pastakia, A. Assessing ecopreneurship in the context of a developing country: The case of India. Greener Manag. Int. 2002, 38, 93–108. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Caviglia-Harris, J.L.; Kahn, J.R.; Green, T. Demand-side policies for environmental protection and sustainable usage of renewable resources. Ecol. Econ. 2003, 45, 119–132. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Seyfang, G. Shopping for sustainability: Can sustainable consumption promote ecological citizenship? Environ. Politics 2005, 14, 290–306. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Soloviy, I.P.; Cubbage, F.W. Forest policy in aroused society: Ukrainian post-Orange Revolution challenges. For. Policy Econ. 2007, 10, 60–69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Beeson, M. The coming of environmental authoritarianism. Environ. Politics 2010, 19, 276–294. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dutta, S.K.; Lawson, R.A.; Marcinko, D.J. Alignment of performance measurement to sustainability objectives: A variance-based framework. J. Account. Public Policy 2013, 32, 456–474. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hildén, M. Evaluation, assessment, and policy innovation: Exploring the links in relation to emissions trading. Environ. Politics 2014, 23, 839–859. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tisdell, C. Coevolution, agricultural practices and sustainability: Some major social and ecological issues. Int. J. Agric. Resour. Gov. Ecol. 2000, 1, 6–16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rogers, R.A.; Wilkinson, C.J. Policies of extinction: The life and death of Canada’s endangered species legislation. Policy Stud. J. 2000, 28, 190–205. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Desrochers, P.; Ikeda, S. On the failure of socialist economies to close the loop on industrial by-products: Insights from the Austrian critique of planning. Environ. Politics 2003, 12, 102–122. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- García, G.M.; Pollard, J.; Rodríguez, R.D. The planning and practice of coastal zone management in southern Spain. J. Sustain. Tour. 2003, 11, 204–223. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Parto, S. Sustainability and the local scale: Squaring the peg? Int. J. Sustain. Dev. 2003, 7, 76–97. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alshuwaikhat, H.M.; Rahman, S.M.; Aina, Y.A. The rationale for SEA to overcome the inadequacy of environmental assessment in Bangladesh. J. Environ. Dev. 2007, 16, 227–246. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pelletier, N. Of laws and limits: An ecological economic perspective on redressing the failure of contemporary global environmental governance. Glob. Environ. Chang. 2010, 20, 220–228. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Akgün, A.A.; Van Leeuwen, E.; Nijkamp, P. A systemic perspective on multi-stakeholder sustainable development strategies. Contrib. Confl. Manag. Peace Econ. Dev. 2011, 18, 123–146. [Google Scholar]
- Jabbour, J.; Keita-Ouane, F.; Hunsberger, C.; Sánchez-Rodríguez, R.; Gilruth, P.; Patel, N.; Singh, A.; Levy, M.A.; Schwarzer, S. Internationally agreed environmental goals: A critical evaluation of progress. Environ. Dev. 2012, 3, 5–24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Paker, H.; Adaman, F.; Kadirbeyoǧlu, Z.; Özkaynak, B. Environmental organisations in Turkey: Engaging the state and capital. Environ. Politics 2013, 22, 760–778. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Urich, P.B. Could industrialisation and economic growth lead to sustainable environments? Land tenure, population and migration issues in the Philippines. Dev. Bull. Aust. Dev. Stud. Netw. 1998, 45, 52–54. [Google Scholar]
- Mittler, D. Environmental space and barriers to local sustainability: Evidence from Edinburgh, Scotland. Local Environ. 1999, 4, 353–365. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lux, K. The failure of the profit motive. Ecol. Econ. 2003, 44, 1–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Boadi, K.; Kuitunen, M.; Raheem, K.; Hanninen, K. Urbanisation without development: Environmental and health implications in African cities. Environ. Dev. Sustain. 2005, 7, 465–500. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Economy, E. Environmental governance: The emerging economic dimension. Environ. Politics 2006, 15, 171–189. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sheppard, A.W.; Raghu, S.; Begley, C.; Genovesi, P.; De Barro, P.; Tasker, A.; Roberts, B. Biosecurity as an integral part of the new bioeconomy: A path to a more sustainable future. Curr. Opin. Environ. Sustain. 2011, 3, 105–111. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, L. Environmental poverty, a decomposed environmental Kuznets curve, and alternatives: Sustainability lessons from China. Ecol. Econ. 2012, 73, 86–92. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Phelan, L.; McGee, J.; Gordon, R. Cooperative governance: One pathway to a stable-state economy. Environ. Politics 2012, 21, 412–431. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wright, C.; Nyberg, D. Creative self-destruction: Corporate responses to climate change as political myths. Environ. Politics 2014, 23, 205–223. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Carruthers, I.; Rosegrant, M.W.; Seckler, D. Irrigation and food security in the 21st century. Irrigat. Drain. Syst. 1997, 11, 83–101. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Voisey, H.; O’Riordan, T. Governing institutions for sustainable development: The United Kingdom’s national level approach. Environ. Politics 1997, 6, 23–52. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Baker, S.; Baumgartl, B. Bulgaria: Managing the environment in an unstable transition. Environ. Politics 1998, 7, 183–206. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bailey, I.G. Competition, sustainability and packaging policy in the UK. J. Environ. Plan. Manag. 1999, 42, 83–102. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ashford, N.A. Government and environmental innovation in Europe and North America. Am. Behav. Sci. 2002, 45, 1417–1434. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kobus, D. Development and testing of a conceptual framework for assessment of progress towards achieving sustainable development in countries in transition. J. Environ. Assess. Policy Manag. 2005, 7, 457–491. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bromley, D.W. Environmental regulations and the problem of sustainability: Moving beyond “market failure”. Ecol. Econ. 2007, 63, 676–683. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Egli, H.; Steger, T.M. A dynamic model of the environmental Kuznets curve: Turning point and public policy. Environ. Resour. Econ. 2007, 36, 15–34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Buzar, S. Energy, environment and international financial institutions: The EBRD’s activities in the western Balkans. Geogr. Ann. Ser. B Hum. Geogr. 2008, 90, 409–431. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ooi, G.L. Challenges of sustainability for Asian urbanisation. Curr. Opin. Environ. Sustain. 2009, 1, 187–191. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shiferaw, B.A.; Okello, J.; Reddy, R.V. Adoption and adaptation of natural resource management innovations in smallholder agriculture: Reflections on key lessons and best practices. Environ. Dev. Sustain. 2009, 11, 601–619. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Beça, P.; Santos, R. Measuring sustainable welfare: A new approach to the ISEW. Ecol. Econ. 2010, 69, 810–819. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Polk, M. Institutional capacity-building in urban planning and policy-making for sustainable development: Success or failure? Plan. Pract. Res. 2011, 26, 185–206. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Punter, J. Urban design and the English urban renaissance 1999–2009: A review and preliminary evaluation. J. Urban Des. 2011, 16, 1–41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hysing, E. Representative democracy, empowered experts, and citizen participation: Visions of green governing. Environ. Politics 2013, 22, 955–974. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Siegel, S. Community without solidarity: Mercury pollution from small-scale mining and Colombia’s crisis of authority. Community Dev. J. 2013, 48, 451–465. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, C.; Liu, L.Q. Pricing and quality decisions and financial incentives for sustainable product design with recycled material content underprice leadership. Int. J. Product. Econ. 2014, 147, 666–677. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fieldman, G. Financialisation and ecological modernisation. Environ. Politics 2014, 23, 224–242. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Evans, B.; Joas, M.; Sundback, S.; Theobald, K. Governing local sustainability. J. Environ. Plan. Manag. 2006, 49, 849–867. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bartel, R.; Barclay, E. Motivational postures and compliance with environmental law in Australian agriculture. J. Rural Stud. 2011, 27, 153–170. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brand, R.; Fischer, J. Overcoming the technophilia/technophobia split in environmental discourse. Environ. Politics 2013, 22, 235–254. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Carter, C.A. Constructing sustainability in EU fisheries: Re-drawing the boundary between science and politics? Environ. Sci. Policy 2013, 30, 26–35. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lybecker, D.L.; McBeth, M.K.; Kusko, E. Trash or treasure: Recycling narratives and reducing political polarisation. Environ. Politics 2013, 22, 312–332. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Toke, D. Wind power in UK and Denmark: Can rational choice help explain different outcomes? Environ. Politics 2002, 11, 83–100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Griffin, L. Scales of knowledge: North Sea fisheries governance, the local fisherman and the European scientist. Environ. Politics 2009, 18, 557–575. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Meehan, J.; Bryde, D. Sustainable procurement practice. Bus. Strategy Environ. 2011, 20, 94–106. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ford, M.; March, A. Assessing the Delivery of Sustainable Residential Development. Int. Plan. Stud. 2012, 17, 1–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Blühdorn, I. The governance of unsustainability: Ecology and democracy after the post-democratic turn. Environ. Politics 2013, 22, 16–36. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Williams, J. Sun, surf and sustainable housing-Cohousing, the Californian experience. Int. Plan. Stud. 2005, 10, 145–177. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schuppert, F. Climate change mitigation and intergenerational justice. Environ. Politics 2011, 20, 303–321. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Thompson, M. Climate, imagination, Kant, and situational awareness. J. Glob. Ethics 2011, 7, 137–147. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, J.; Liang, X.J. Promoting green ICT in China: A framework based on innovation system approaches. Telecommun. Policy 2012, 36, 997–1013. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mulale, K.; Chanda, R.; Perkins, J.S.; Magole, L.; Sebego, R.J.; Atlhopheng, J.R.; Mphinyane, W.; Reed, M.S. Formal institutions and their role in promoting sustainable land management in Boteti, Botswana. Land Degrad. Dev. 2014, 25, 80–91. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Connard, C.B. Sustaining agriculture: An examination of current legislation promoting sustainable agriculture as an alternative to conventional farming practices. Penn State Environ. Law Rev. 2004, 13, 125–145. [Google Scholar]
- Rinzin, C.; Velthuis, D.N.; Vermeulen, W.J.V. The ‘successful failure’ of the sustainable development agreement between the Netherlands and Bhutan. Sustain. Dev. 2007, 15, 382–396. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- James, S.W. Protecting Sydney’s Peri-Urban Agriculture: Moving beyond a Housing/Farming Dichotomy. Geogr. Res. 2013, 52, 377–386. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pellenbarg, P.H. Sustainable business sites in the Netherlands: A survey of policies and experiences. J. Environ. Plan. Manag. 2002, 45, 59–84. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Marcoux, C.; Urpelainen, J. Special interests, regulatory quality, and the pesticides overload. Rev. Policy Res. 2011, 28, 585–612. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Upham, P.; Kivimaa, P.; Mickwitz, P.; Åstrand, K. Climate policy innovation: A sociotechnical transitions perspective. Environ. Politics 2014, 23, 774–794. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chidumayo, E.N.; Gumbo, D.J. The environmental impacts of charcoal production in tropical ecosystems of the world: A synthesis. Energy Sustain. Dev. 2013, 17, 86–94. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Papageorgiou, K.; Vogiatzakis, I.N. Nature protection in Greece: An appraisal of the factors shaping integrative conservation and policy effectiveness. Environ. Sci. Policy 2006, 9, 476–486. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Humphreys, D. The global politics of forest conservation since the UNCED. Environ. Politics 1996, 5, 231–256. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bosetti, V.; Buchner, B. Data Envelopment Analysis of different climate policy scenarios. Ecol. Econ. 2009, 68, 1340–1354. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mol, A.P.J. Environmental authorities and biofuel controversies. Environ. Politics 2010, 19, 61–79. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Oosterlynck, S.; Swyngedouw, E. Noise reduction: The postpolitical quandary of night flights at Brussels Airport. Environ. Plan. A 2010, 42, 1577–1594. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gilley, B. Authoritarian environmentalism and China’s response to climate change. Environ. Politics 2012, 21, 287–307. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Montanarella, L.; Vargas, R. Global governance of soil resources as a necessary condition for sustainable development. Curr. Opin. Environ. Sustain. 2012, 4, 559–564. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hausknost, D. Decision, choice, solution: ‘Agentic deadlock’ in environmental politics. Environ. Politics 2014, 23, 357–375. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Allenby, B. Geoengineering: A Critique. In Proceedings of the 2011 IEEE International Symposium on Sustainable Systems and Technology, Chicago, IL, USA, 16–18 May 2011; Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers: Chicago, IL, USA, 2011. [Google Scholar]
- Von Zharen, W.M. An ecopolicy perspective for sustaining living marine species. Ocean Dev. Int. Law 1999, 30, 1–41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ashford, N.A.; Hall, R.P. The importance of regulation-induced innovation for sustainable development. Sustainability 2011, 3, 270–292. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bogardi, J.J.; Dudgeon, D.; Lawford, R.; Flinkerbusch, E.; Meyn, A.; Pahl-Wostl, C.; Vielhauer, K.; Vörösmarty, C. Water security for a planet under pressure: Interconnected challenges of a changing world call for sustainable solutions. Curr. Opin. Environ. Sustain. 2012, 4, 35–43. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shokri, A.; Oglethorpe, D.; Nabhani, F. Evaluating sustainability in the UK fast food supply chain: Review of dimensions, awareness and practice. J. Manuf. Technol. Manag. 2013, 25, 1224–1244. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Arias Schreiber, M. The evolution of legal instruments and the sustainability of the Peruvian anchovy fishery. Mar. Policy 2012, 36, 78–89. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yanarella, E.J.; Bartilow, H. Beyond environmental moralism and policy incrementalism in the global sustainability debate: Case studies and an alternative framework. Sustain. Dev. 2000, 8, 123–134. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Redclift, M. The environment and carbon dependence. Curr. Sociol. 2009, 57, 369–388. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Van der Ploeg, J.; Araño, R.R.; Van Weerd, M. What local people think about crocodiles: Challenging environmental policy narratives in the Philippines. J. Environ. Dev. 2011, 20, 303–328. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lang, T.; Barling, D. Food security and food sustainability: Reformulating the debate. Geogr. J. 2012, 178, 313–326. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Holden, M.; MacKenzie, J.; Van Wynsberghe, R. Vancouver’s promise of the world’s first sustainable Olympic Games. Environ. Plan. C Gov. Policy 2008, 26, 882–905. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Benson, M.H. The End of Sustainability. Soc. Nat. Resour. 2014, 27, 777–782. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shackleton, C.M.; Hebinck, P.; Kaoma, H.; Chishaleshale, M.; Chinyimba, A.; Shackleton, S.E.; Gambiza, J.; Gumbo, D. Low-cost housing developments in South Africa miss the opportunities for household level urban greening. Land Use Policy 2014, 36, 500–509. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Heinzle, S.L.; Wüstenhagen, R. Dynamic adjustment of eco-labelling schemes and consumer choice—The revision of the EU energy label as a missed opportunity? Bus. Strategy Environ. 2012, 21, 60–70. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Waldron, A.; Mooers, A.O.; Miller, D.C.; Nibbelink, N.; Redding, D.; Kuhn, T.S.; Roberts, J.T.; Gittleman, J.L. Targeting global conservation funding to limit immediate biodiversity declines. PNAS 2013, 110, 12144–12148. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hindmarsh, R. “Liberating” social knowledges for water management, and more broadly environmental management, through “place-change planning”. Local Environ. 2012, 17, 1121–1136. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brunner, N.; Lele, A.; Starkl, M.; Grassini, L. Water sector reform policy of India: Experiences from case studies in Maharashtra. J. Policy Model. 2010, 32, 544–561. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Elder, M.; Bengtsson, M.; Akenji, L. An Optimistic Analysis of the Means of Implementation for Sustainable Development Goals: Thinking about Goals as Means. Sustainability 2016, 8, 962. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Specific Policies | Number of Publications |
---|---|
International Policies/Agreements/Conventions | 15 |
Agenda 21 | |
United Nation Conference on Environment and Development Statement of Forest Principles 1992 | |
Convention on Biological Diversity | |
Kyoto Protocol | |
Local Agenda 21 | |
Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution Convention | |
Rio Declaration | |
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982) | |
World Soil Charter | |
Convention on the Sustainable Use of Soils | |
Millennium Development Goals | |
UNCED Statement of Forest Principles 1992 | |
Trans-National Policies/Agreements/Conventions | 6 |
Sustainable Development Agreement | |
Common Fisheries Policy (EU) | |
European Union Emisions Trading System | |
EU Energy Label | |
Aalborg Charter | |
Natura 2000 | |
National, Regional/State, Local Policies (organized by country) | 29 |
Australia | 3 |
Melbourne 2030: Planning for Sustainable Growth (Australia) | |
Murray Darling Basin Authority “Guide to the Proposed Basin Plan” (Australia) | |
Sydney’s 2005 Metropolitan Strategy (Australia) | |
Bangladesh | 1 |
National Environmental Policy 1992 (Bangladesh) | |
Botswana | 10 |
Tribal Land Act (1968) (Botswana) | |
Tribal Grazing Land Policy (TGLP) (Botswana) | |
National Policy on Agricultural Development (NPAD) (Botswana) | |
The Agricultural Resources Conservation Act (1974) (Botswana) | |
Diseases of Animals Act (1977) (Botswana) | |
Wildlife Conservation and National Parks Act (1992) (Botswana) | |
Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) Policy of 2007 (Botswana) | |
Arable Land Development Programme (ALDEP) (1981–2008n) (Botswana) | |
Support for Livestock Owners in Communal Areas (SLOCA) (1979) (Botswana) | |
Livestock Water Development Programme (LWDP) (1991) (Botswana) | |
Canada | 1 |
Canada Endangered Species Protection Act | |
China | 4 |
Green GDP (China) | |
National Environmental Model City Programme (China) | |
Engagement of International Business Community (China) | |
Tradeable Emission Permits (China) | |
Colombia | 1 |
Decree 948 (Colombian law to remove gold processing from urban areas) | |
India | 2 |
Swajal Dhara (India) | |
Aapale Pani (India) | |
Nepal | 5 |
The Environment Protection Act 1997 (Nepal) | |
The Forest Act 1992 (Nepal) | |
The Water Resource Act 1992 (Nepal) | |
Vehicle and Transport Management Act 1992 (Nepal) | |
Industrial Enterprises Act 1992 (Nepal) | |
Netherlands | 1 |
National Environmental Policy Plans (Netherlands) | |
Peru | 1 |
General Fisheries Act (Peru) | |
Philippines | 1 |
Crocodile Farming Institute (Philippine Initiative) | |
South Africa | 11 |
White Paper on Reconstruction and Development Programme, 1994 (South Africa) | |
White Paper on Housing Policy and Strategy for South Africa, 1994 | |
Development Facilitation Act (DFA), 1995 (South Africa) | |
Urban Development Strategy,1996 (South Africa) | |
Housing Act, 1997 (South Africa) | |
Urban Development Framework, 1997 (South Africa) | |
Municipal Systems Act, 2000 (South Africa) | |
National Urban Renewal Programme, 2001 (South Africa) | |
White Paper on Spatial Planning and Land Use Management, 2001 (South Africa) | |
National Urban Development Framework, 2009 (South Africa) | |
National Development Plan, 2011 (South Africa) | |
Spain | 1 |
Ley de Costas (Shore Act) 1988 (Spain) | |
Sweden | 1 |
HUR2050: Sustainable Development for the Region (Sweden) | |
Ukraine | 1 |
Forests of Ukraine Program | |
United Kingdom | 11 |
1990 White Paper: This Common Inheritance (UK) | |
Sustainable Development, the UK Strategy | |
Changing Patterns (UK Consumption Strategy) | |
Government Sponsored Windpower Programme (UK and Denmark) | |
Local Government Climate Resolution (UK) | |
Lord Provost's Commission on Sustainable Development (UK) | |
Moving Forward (UK) | |
Producer Responsibility Obligations (Packaging Waste) Regulations 1997 (UK) | |
Packaging (Essential Requirements) Regulations 1998 (UK) | |
Packaging Waste Recovery Note (PRN) system (UK) | |
Urban Taskforce Report (UK) | |
United States of America | 7 |
Clean Air Act (US) | |
Clean Water Act (US) | |
Magnuson Fishery Conservation and Management Act (US) | |
US Pollution Prevention Act | |
Technology Innovation Strategy (US) | |
Project XL (EPA US) | |
Common Sense Initiative (EPA US) |
Reasons for Policy Failure | Number of Papers | |
---|---|---|
Interrelated Structural Causes | Economic | 48 |
Social | 24 | |
Environmental | 5 | |
Political | 42 | |
Technical | 9 | |
Legal | 32 | |
Discursive | 19 | |
Implementation Traps | Incomplete specification | 13 |
Inappropriate agency | 24 | |
Conflicting objectives | 30 | |
Incentive failures | 31 | |
Conflicting directives | 9 | |
Limited competence | 21 | |
Inadequate administrative resources | 22 | |
Communication failure | 47 | |
Knowledge/scope issues | Incomplete understanding of problem | 15 |
A reading of issues that is too narrow | 22 | |
Lack of Evaluation | 14 |
Factors Cited | Percentage of Cases in Developing Countries | Percentage of Cases in Developed Countries | Percentage of International Studies | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Interrelated Structural Causes | Economic | 59 | 58 | 52 |
Social | 32 | 25 | 14 | |
Environmental | 14 | 5 | 0 | |
Political | 45 | 50 | 38 | |
Technical | 14 | 8 | 14 | |
Legal | 45 | 28 | 35 | |
Discursive | 0 | 10 | 29 | |
Implementation Traps | Incomplete specification | 27 | 10 | 10 |
Inappropriate agency | 36 | 18 | 28 | |
Conflicting objectives | 36 | 33 | 31 | |
Incentive failures | 41 | 25 | 35 | |
Conflicting directives | 23 | 10 | 3 | |
Limited competence | 41 | 10 | 17 | |
Inadequate administrative resources | 36 | 15 | 21 | |
Communications failures | 55 | 65 | 24 | |
Knowledge/Scope Issues | Incomplete understanding of problem | 27 | 0 | 29 |
Too narrow reading of issues | 32 | 18 | 29 | |
Lack of evaluation | 23 | 13 | 10 |
© 2017 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Howes, M.; Wortley, L.; Potts, R.; Dedekorkut-Howes, A.; Serrao-Neumann, S.; Davidson, J.; Smith, T.; Nunn, P. Environmental Sustainability: A Case of Policy Implementation Failure? Sustainability 2017, 9, 165. https://doi.org/10.3390/su9020165
Howes M, Wortley L, Potts R, Dedekorkut-Howes A, Serrao-Neumann S, Davidson J, Smith T, Nunn P. Environmental Sustainability: A Case of Policy Implementation Failure? Sustainability. 2017; 9(2):165. https://doi.org/10.3390/su9020165
Chicago/Turabian StyleHowes, Michael, Liana Wortley, Ruth Potts, Aysin Dedekorkut-Howes, Silvia Serrao-Neumann, Julie Davidson, Timothy Smith, and Patrick Nunn. 2017. "Environmental Sustainability: A Case of Policy Implementation Failure?" Sustainability 9, no. 2: 165. https://doi.org/10.3390/su9020165
APA StyleHowes, M., Wortley, L., Potts, R., Dedekorkut-Howes, A., Serrao-Neumann, S., Davidson, J., Smith, T., & Nunn, P. (2017). Environmental Sustainability: A Case of Policy Implementation Failure? Sustainability, 9(2), 165. https://doi.org/10.3390/su9020165