Rural Electrification Efforts Based on Off-Grid Photovoltaic Systems in the Andean Region: Comparative Assessment of Their Sustainability
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Country Comparison Brief
3.1. Geography and Demography
3.2. Politics and Economy
3.3. Energy
3.4. Rural Electrification
4. Results
4.1. Institutional Sustainability
4.1.1. Stability/Durability
4.1.2. Regulations and Standards
4.1.3. Adaptability
4.1.4. Decentralization and Openness to Participation
4.2. Economic Sustainability
4.2.1. Cost Effectiveness
4.2.2. Reliability
4.2.3. Initial Investment
4.2.4. Operation and Maintenance
4.2.5. Productive Use
4.3. Environmental Sustainability
4.3.1. Environmental Awareness
4.3.2. Environmental Impact
4.4. Socio-Cultural Sustainability
4.4.1. Equity (Disparity)
4.4.2. Accuracy
4.4.3. Social Acceptance
4.4.4. Cultural Justice
4.5. Direct Comparison between the Andean Countries
5. Discussion
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Sustainability Dimension | Indicator | Definition |
---|---|---|
Institutional | Stability (Durability) | Stability concerns the durability of the (national and local) formal institutions of a country. This may refer to the organization itself, its legal existence, as well as the stability of personnel within the organization (staff turnover). |
Regulation and Standards | Regulations embrace the legal framework of a country including its consistency, coherence, and liability. Standards refer to the implementation and verification of technical standards for off-grid PV systems and their accessories including the legal bounding for quality assurance. | |
Adaptability | Adaptability implies the formal institutions’ ability to adapt to the needs of the population and its socio-cultural circumstances. The concept embraces flexible, decentralized institutional structures that have the (technical and socio-cultural) know-how and the (de facto and de jure) power to effectively steer rural electrification. | |
Decentralization/Participation | Decentralization and participation refer to the degree to which formal and informal institutions work jointly together on the local projects. The participation of a local community usually requires a degree of decentralization of the agents in charge of the rural electrification project. | |
Economic | Funding (Initial investment/O&M) | Funding consists of both the funds provided for the initial investment of the off-grid PV systems (including its components, installation costs, costs for user training and handbooks) as well as the funds to operate and maintain the systems over their entire lifetime (including operational costs for repairing services and substitutions (e.g., batteries), the administration of the systems (such as tariff collection), the provision and storage costs for spare parts, all kinds of travel expenses to the dwellings and back, and disposal costs). |
Cost effectiveness | Cost-effectiveness of a solution is defined by the degree to which monetary resources are efficiently invested by the deployment of an accurate (see indicator accuracy below) energy system for a community with the lowest costs over the system’s lifetime. | |
Reliability | Reliability requires the systems to be constantly operational. Defects are corrected in a short (and previously defined) time span. Reliability requires spare parts and know-how to be available at the local site. | |
Productive Use | Energy systems are expected to contribute to the economic development of the users. This can be achieved by (partially) using the systems for productive uses, which generates user income (users might then even bear O&M costs) due to a higher productivity/performance associated with energy. | |
Environmental | Environmental Awareness | Environmental awareness is defined as the consciousness of the society on the importance of the environment. It often requires an understanding of the connections between environmental, energy, and social/economic issues and its value for wellbeing. |
Environmental impact | Environmental impact refers to the positive as well as negative effects that a technology has on the environment. These impacts may be local or global in nature. Examples for the former are the handling of disposals (such as batteries) from the systems, noise disturbances, pollution aesthetics, etc. The latter refers to impacts on the climate system (due to greenhouse gases) or the loss of biodiversity worldwide. Positive impacts may, e.g., be the avoidance of these gases due to the adoption of “clean” renewable technologies. | |
Socio-Cultural | Equity | Equity (disparity) is the degree of equal (distinct) treatment for different groups of a population, e.g., rural and urban populations or different ethnic groups on the one hand, and within groups (i.e., similar rural populations from one vs. another community) on the other hand. Equity relies on the underlying concept of justice. Equity (disparity) issues may refer to the point in time when a community is electrified (temporal equity), the provided energy quality and quantity (system size) for/within each group, and the differences between energy tariffs. |
Accuracy | Accuracy in sustainable rural electrification is defined as the degree to which the solutions are conforming to the lifestyle and needs of the users. Accuracy often refers to the off-grid system capacity for present and future energy demand, as well as technological specifications that consider socio-cultural factors (such as ease of use, community lifestyle, etc.). | |
Social Acceptance | Social acceptance in sustainable rural electrification is understood as the degree to which a community agrees with a project and the installed technology, approves it, and ideally identifies with it. Social acceptance is often facilitated by involving and engaging the users in the project and by making them part of the solution, such that they understand its advantages and limitations and agree on the conditions (their rights and obligations). | |
Cultural Justice | Cultural justice refers to the consideration of/and respect for the culture, motivations and values of the population (e.g., concerning environmental awareness). |
Chile | Ecuador | Peru | |
---|---|---|---|
Total Population (2015) | 17,948.14 | 16,144.36 | 31,376.67 |
Rural population (% of total; 2015) | 10.47 | 36.26 | 21.39 |
Population density (people per sq. km of land area; 2015) | 24.20 | 65.00 | 24.51 |
Rural population growth (%; average during last 5 years) | −0.7 | 0.98 | −0.2 |
Surface Area (km2) | 756,950 | 283,500 | 1,285,216 |
Chile | Ecuador | Peru | |
---|---|---|---|
GDP per capita, PPP (constant 2011 international $; 2015) | 22,145.10 | 10,717.60 | 11,672.14 |
Annual GDP Growth (%; average of last 5 years) | 3.8 | 4.4 | 4.8 |
GINI Index (2013) | 50.5 | 47.3 | 44.7 |
Foreign Direct Investment net inflows (percent of GDP; 2015) | 8.5 | 1.1 | 3.6 |
Exported Commodities (in percent of total exports) | 54.2 | 56.5 | 62 |
Chile | Ecuador | Peru | |
---|---|---|---|
Net Energy Imports (percent of energy use; 2013) | 61.3 | −93.8 | −0.2 |
Electricity consumption (kilo Watts hours (kWh) per capita; 2013) | 3879 | 1333 | 1270 |
Generation rate of NCRE for electricity (percent of total generation of electricity) | 13 | 2 | 3.1 |
RE consumption (percent of total final energy consumption; 2012) | 30.3 | 13.4 | 28.3 |
Rural Electrification Rate (%; 2012) | 97.8 | 92.3 | 63 |
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Feron, S.; Cordero, R.R.; Labbe, F. Rural Electrification Efforts Based on Off-Grid Photovoltaic Systems in the Andean Region: Comparative Assessment of Their Sustainability. Sustainability 2017, 9, 1825. https://doi.org/10.3390/su9101825
Feron S, Cordero RR, Labbe F. Rural Electrification Efforts Based on Off-Grid Photovoltaic Systems in the Andean Region: Comparative Assessment of Their Sustainability. Sustainability. 2017; 9(10):1825. https://doi.org/10.3390/su9101825
Chicago/Turabian StyleFeron, Sarah, Raúl R. Cordero, and Fernando Labbe. 2017. "Rural Electrification Efforts Based on Off-Grid Photovoltaic Systems in the Andean Region: Comparative Assessment of Their Sustainability" Sustainability 9, no. 10: 1825. https://doi.org/10.3390/su9101825