Reflecting the Effect of Physical–Perceptual Components on Increasing the Anxiety of Inner-City Rail Transit’s Users: An Integrative Review

Abstract

As urbanization continues to expand, the design and structure of urban spaces increasingly influence the experiences of individuals, whether intentionally or inadvertently. These effects can result in both positive and negative experiences, with urban facilities generally designed to enhance the comfort and well-being of citizens. However, in certain cases, these spaces can provoke adverse emotional reactions, such as anxiety. Anxiety, a prevalent mental health disorder, is more commonly observed in urban environments than in rural areas. Among various urban settings, rail transport in large cities is often cited as one of the most stressful environments for passengers. In light of the significance of this issue, this study seeks to explore how physical and perceptual components can reduce anxiety and encourage greater use of intra-urban rail transportation. Utilizing a qualitative research approach, the study employed directional content analysis to investigate this topic. Data were collected and analyzed through an exploratory methodology with the assistance of MAXQDA software. The analysis began with guided content coding, drawing on theoretical frameworks pertinent to the research. Through this process, 2387 initial codes were identified, which were then categorized into nine main themes, with the relationships between these codes clarified. The findings were inductively derived from the raw data, leading to the development of a foundational theoretical framework. The study, employing a personalized strategy, identified three key factors that contribute to anxiety: physical, perceptual, and environmental components. Physical factors, such as accessibility, lighting, and signage, were found to have a significant impact on passengers’ psychological well-being. Perceptual factors, including personal perceptions, stress, and fear, played a crucial role in exacerbating anxiety. Additionally, environmental factors, particularly the design of metro networks, rail lines, and flexible transportation lines, such as car-sharing and micromobility, were found to significantly contribute to the overall anxiety experienced by passengers. Moreover, the study suggests that anxiety triggers can be mitigated effectively through the implementation of well-designed policies and management practices. Enhancing the sense of security within transit spaces was found to increase citizens’ willingness to utilize rail transportation. These findings indicate that targeted interventions aimed at improving both the physical and perceptual aspects of the transit environment could enhance the commuter experience and, in turn, foster greater use of rail systems.

1. Introduction

Approximately 20% of individuals experience anxiety in various forms [1]. Urban residents, however, face a 40% higher risk of depression compared to those in rural areas [2]. Urbanization affects mental health through stressors such as overcrowding, pollution, and social isolation [3,4]. In this context, public transportation—especially rail transit—is linked to increased anxiety and mental distress [5,6]. Anxiety and stress are common among rail commuters and other public transit users [7]. For example, Lan’s research indicates that noise exposure on public transit raises anxiety levels by 9% [8]. Moreover, the COVID-19 pandemic has heightened fears and discomfort regarding public transit due to concerns about infection risk [9,10]. These findings illustrate the growing interest in the complex interplay between mental health and urbanization [11,12]. Environmental factors play a major role in shaping human behavior and emotions, acting as either positive or negative influences [13]. Modern urban life, marked by criminal activity, economic instability, social disruptions, and unfavorable policies, creates persistent uncertainty that drives anxiety. Transportation systems are often identified as key contributors to travel-related anxiety [14,15]. Public transportation is essential to the economic and social well-being of modern cities [16,17] and can evoke a wide range of emotions—from anxiety and fear to anger and joy [18]. However, planning urban transportation infrastructure without considering users’ emotional responses or the natural environment has negatively impacted quality of life and sustainability [19,20]. Addressing these emotional factors, such as anxiety, is crucial for promoting greater public transit use [21]. Prior research has linked issues like insufficient space, limited accessibility, discomfort, reduced privacy, inadequate capacity, and compromised safety with increased anxiety among transit users [22,23]. Fear and anxiety are key elements that influence travel satisfaction and behavior [24].

Despite these challenges, cities worldwide continue to invest in urban rail systems, including metros, light rail, commuter rail, and streetcars, to meet environmental, financial, and mobility objectives [25]. These systems are central to the physical and perceptual identity of cities, reinforcing their economic and social frameworks [23]. Railway stations, as critical hubs, must cater to the diverse needs of thousands of passengers every second [26]. Additionally, sustainability in urban design and transportation infrastructure has become a cornerstone of policymaking and research in recent decades [27]. Inner-city rail transit plays a pivotal role not only in reducing pollutant emissions and enhancing environmental health but also in influencing the mental well-being of its users [28].

Studies consistently indicate that anxiety in rail transit is exacerbated by factors including overcrowding, limited facility access, and poor perceptual-physical station design [29]. Moreover, the quantitative literature repeatedly identifies crowding as a primary contributor to anxiety among inner-city rail users. Evans and Wener (2007) [30] found that higher passenger density in train cars is associated with increased cortisol levels and elevated self-reported anxiety, with a moderate effect size (Cohen’s d = 0.53). This indicates that crowding acts as a significant physiological and psychological stressor for commuters. Accessibility barriers further increase travel-related anxiety. For example, Garg et al. (2022) observed that passengers with limited access to rail stations are 1.4 times more likely to report anxiety compared to those with convenient access [31]. Complementing this, Cheng (2010) documented a dose–response relationship, where each additional 15 min required to reach a station raised the anxiety risk by 5 percent (risk ratio = 1.05). These findings suggest that even short delays in approaching a station can significantly elevate psychological distress [15,31].

Perceived security concerns also play a critical role in commuter anxiety. Desai et al. (2010) and Kim and Gustafson-Pearce (2016) reported that travelers worried about personal safety—especially in poorly lit or isolated areas—have a hazard of anxiety that is approximately 1.8 times higher [32,33]. Jacobs (1996) [34] noted that more than 20 percent of potential users avoid public transit due to fears regarding social safety, which prompted security enhancements in the Netherlands. Together, these studies confirm that both fear of crime and inadequate lighting contribute to physical discomfort and heightened psychological stress.

When comparing these physical–perceptual factors, Li and Hensher’s (2011) [35] meta-analysis showed that crowding has the strongest effect on anxiety (Cohen’s d = 0.50), followed by security concerns (d = 0.40) and accessibility issues (d = 0.35). These ranking highlights passenger density as the primary trigger for anxiety, while also underscoring the significant roles of perceived safety and access limitations in commuter stress.

Consequently, integrating sustainability with human-centered design approaches is imperative to enhancing rail network efficiency, reducing passenger anxiety, and promoting overall psychological well-being in urban environments.

The key findings from this extensive body of research can be summarized as follows:

• Public transportation significantly impacts citizens’ emotions, behaviors, and cognitive and physiological symptoms of anxiety.
• The physical–perceptual components commonly associated with train stations influence the relationship between citizens’ anxiety levels and the overall performance of the public transportation system.

Accordingly, this paper addresses a critical research gap by examining the reflective impact of physical–perceptual components on the increasing anxiety experienced by urban train users. This exploration raises several key questions:

• Q-1: What are the physical–perceptual indicators associated with public transportation?
• Q-2: Which indicators have the potential to elevate anxiety levels among urban train users?

This section synthesizes current research on the link between urban transit systems and passenger anxiety. It critically examines how physical and perceptual factors, such as overcrowding, limited accessibility, discomfort, and unreliable service, shape perceptions of safety and comfort. A qualitative analytical approach was used, with data collection and coding managed systematically through MAXQDA software. The methodology was based on directed content analysis, starting with initial codes derived from established theoretical frameworks to extract relevant themes and understand the interrelationships within the data. The findings, accompanied by an in-depth discussion, demonstrate significant correlations between high passenger density and adverse psychological outcomes, particularly anxiety, in urban rail environments. The analysis emphasizes the critical role of overcrowding, restricted accessibility, and diminished comfort in influencing users’ emotional and cognitive responses. These results are contextualized within the broader literature, highlighting the urgency for urban rail stations to address commuters’ needs effectively. Recommendations focus on improving accessibility, safety, and comfort to reduce anxiety and other negative emotions. The study suggests that station design and operational improvements should be user-centered to enhance overall commuter satisfaction. Moreover, it underscores the vital role of urban planners and policymakers in prioritizing station accessibility, security, and comfort to promote mental well-being and foster more sustainable, user-friendly urban transportation systems. It also outlines future research directions aimed at exploring additional factors influencing anxiety in urban settings and evaluating the effectiveness of various interventions designed to enhance the user experience.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Citizens’ Anxiety in Public Space and Transportation

Plutchik [36] developed a circumplex model of emotions that identifies eight primary states—joy, sadness, anger, fear, trust, disgust, surprise, and anticipation—with each emotion paired with an opposite. According to this model, other complex emotions are combinations of these core states. However, anxiety is not defined as one of the primary emotions. Instead, it is generally understood as an emotional response arising when individuals perceive the future as unpredictable or uncontrollable, with fear being its central element [37]. Anxiety is multifaceted, involving cognitive, physiological, and behavioral components that interact dynamically [38,39]. The cognitive component encompasses thought processes that can trigger anxiety, which is why cognitive therapies aim to identify and address the underlying threats and core fears [24,37]. The physiological component refers to the body’s immediate responses to perceived danger, serving as a somatic indicator. Meanwhile, the behavioral component involves observable actions, such as fidgeting, pacing, or avoidance, that both reflect and contribute to anxiety responses [38].

2.2. The Common Components of Public Transportation Systems

Urbanization’s rapid expansion has made the evolution of urban mobility a key concern in transportation [39]. Scholars note that traditional performance evaluations of public transportation—based on established indicators—can be adapted to suit the specific goals of different systems. Given the multidimensional nature of public transit and urban spaces, the choice of evaluative metrics is often driven by research objectives, thereby opening new avenues in transportation planning. In this context, Meyer (2016) argues that changes in the transportation landscape—driven by population growth, financial capacity, environmental imperatives, technological advances, and sustainability concerns—require new indicators focused on connectivity, quality of life, and environmental quality [17]. The literature identifies five essential characteristics that support informed decision-making by planners: functional classification, system extent, system usage, system performance and capacity, and system condition. Notably, system performance includes critical aspects such as mobility, accessibility, and safety. Furthermore, established public transportation performance categories encompass system performance criteria (e.g., mobility, accessibility, traffic relief, safety, modal balance, and overall efficiency), impact criteria (covering regional development, neighborhood disruption, air quality, and land-use effects), and implementation criteria (addressing cost, public attitudes, and equity). Alternatively, ref. [19] presents an evaluation framework based on five main factors: human behavior, counterpart systems, environmental impacts, social sectors, and economic sectors (Figure 1).

2.3. Relationship Between Public Transportation and Anxiety

Urban mobility plays a crucial role in the functioning of modern cities, yet public transportation users often face various challenges [40]. Rail-based systems are a core part of urban infrastructure [41] and have been widely examined in urban planning, health geography, and psychology. Studies emphasize enhancing seven urban design themes—Green, Blue, Sensory, Neighborly, Active, Playable, and Inclusive—to reduce anxiety in urban environments [41,42]. These themes address access to nature, water features, sensory engagement, social cohesion, physical activity, inclusive play, and accessibility. This study focuses on emotional responses, particularly anxiety, related to railway infrastructure. Recent frameworks assess public transport through social impacts, including mental health, equity, satisfaction, and affordability [19]. Anxiety is a key component in these evaluations and is shaped by environmental stressors [43]. Anxiety sources in transit systems fall into two categories. The first includes system-based issues such as crowding and delays [26,44,45], which trigger physical and emotional stress responses in [46]. The second involves contextual factors such as time of day, companionship, and perceived safety, which can provoke fear and discomfort [15,45,47].

Common factors related to public transportation indicators have been consistently reported in the literature. For example, ref. [48] emphasizes the importance of user satisfaction with rail-based services. It focuses on service availability, accessibility, ticketing systems, information clarity, travel time efficiency, customer service, comfort, safety, and overall public perception. Similarly, ref. [49] studies operational factors in metro services. It stresses quality indicators such as density, reliability, safety, air quality, comfort, service availability, passenger satisfaction, cleanliness, accessibility, and disability provisions, as discussed in [17]. Further, ref. [23] highlights comfort, efficiency, convenience, timeliness, and unique station characteristics as vital for metro station satisfaction. In addition, ref. [25] examines station design features like lighting, decorative roofing, and the design of floors and walls. This study shows how physical and perceptual elements interact to shape user behavior. Lastly, ref. [50] identifies seven stress indicators in public transportation. These include a lack of control, crime-related insecurity, accident concerns, and environmental factors such as cleanliness, noise levels, temperature, and available space, with the latter closely linked to commuter discomfort and stress.

Crowding is a significant source of anxiety for public transit users. Factors like limited network coverage, required transfers, and reduced service frequency during peak hours further increase anxiety [44]. Overcrowding in railway stations can disrupt passenger flow and lead to accidents and negative behaviors [26]. Research [51], supported by studies [45,52], shows that overcrowding can cause stress, anxiety, and exhaustion. Common symptoms include headaches, muscle tension, and sleep disturbances [45]. Additionally, three measurement models have been proposed to evaluate rail passenger crowding, underscoring the importance of assessing both emotional and psychosocial responses.

Emotional reactions to crowding include discomfort, frustration, and a sense of restriction. Stress may also overlap with irritability and tension. Existing literature has not yet pinpointed all factors contributing to these feelings. According to [46], delays in public transportation worsen anxiety symptoms by increasing frustration, stress, and even physical discomfort. Understanding these emotional and behavioral responses provides valuable insight into how transit elements affect human behavior. For instance, ref. [47] found that factors such as time of day, lighting, crowding, companionship, and surveillance significantly affect levels of fear. Additionally, ref. [53] explored the fear of crime in public transit, emphasizing that the presence of service staff, technical equipment, spatial visibility, and service reliability strongly influence passengers’ fear.

The availability and visibility of service staff, including police officers, and improved accessibility have been shown to reduce anxiety and fear of crime [53]. Similarly, ref. [54] reported that cleanliness, higher passenger density, reliable information systems, and the visibility of rail staff contribute to lower anxiety levels at transit stations. In contrast, unexpected service disruptions can provoke impatience and frustration, which are recognized as anxiety responses [55]. Mobility indicators and travel conditions also play a role in shaping these emotional states [17]. Moreover, ref. [56] highlighted that a lack of information during unforeseen rail disruptions causes significant passenger frustration, while [37] noted that unpredictable situations and a perceived lack of control are major contributors to anxiety. Lastly, ref. [56] reinforced the finding that unexpected service interruptions fuel passenger frustration. Figure 2 illustrates these relationships in a Theoretical Framework.

2.4. The Role of Shared Mobility Systems in Alleviating Citizens’ Anxiety

Shared mobility is increasingly recognized as a viable alternative to traditional transportation systems. It comprises bike-sharing, car-sharing, e-scooters, and ride-hailing platforms such as Uber [57]. Car-sharing addresses urban challenges, including congestion, pollution, and limited parking, by reducing dependency on private vehicles [58,59]. Studies reveal that urban residents who embrace technology-driven solutions are the primary users. The availability and design of these services strongly influence user satisfaction [57,60]. Digital platforms facilitate on-demand vehicle access, thus lowering traffic volumes, emissions, and the need for large parking infrastructures while enhancing urban land use efficiency [58,59,61,62].

The theoretical foundations of shared mobility are based on sustainability, reduced congestion, and improved urban accessibility. Research indicates that well-designed shared mobility systems can lower emissions and reduce energy consumption [59]. However, uncertainties in vehicle availability and reliability may create sharing anxiety, which underscores the need to address psychological barriers for wider adoption [63]. Moreover, services such as bikesharing and ridesharing provide flexibility that compensates for the limitations of fixed-route public transit systems [58,64]. Convenience, cost savings, and environmental benefits are key drivers of user behavior in car-sharing [65].

Micromobility is a focused subset of shared mobility that includes lightweight modes of transportation such as electric bikes, e-scooters, and pedal-assisted vehicles [66]. These modes are particularly popular in densely populated areas due to their flexibility and ease of use [57,66]. Gender differences in risk perception and comfort impact the adoption rates among men and women [66]. Additionally, research among university staff and students in northern England shows that socio-demographic factors like age and income significantly influence micromobility travel patterns [67]. Studies on vehicle-to-grid integration suggest that flexible reservation schedules are increasingly accepted by users, which may drive future service innovations [68]. Digital platforms improve operational efficiency and security by integrating mobile applications and digital access systems [57,64,65,69]. Under the Mobility as a Service (MaaS) framework, these platforms combine various transport options into one interface, streamlining registration and payment to encourage broader adoption and promote sustainable practices [70,71].

Despite the benefits, several challenges hinder the extensive adoption of shared mobility. Barriers include limited public awareness, reduced personal space, and strict regulatory frameworks [72]. Comparative studies in Sweden and Spain demonstrate that robust institutional policies and targeted infrastructure investments are crucial for effective car-sharing deployment [73]. The overall success of car-sharing initiatives depends on comprehensive regulatory frameworks, efficient parking strategies, and the integration of complementary public transportation systems [74]. Without targeted policy interventions and increased public awareness, the full potential of car-sharing as a sustainable urban mobility solution will remain unrealized [72].

In summary, shared mobility, which includes car-sharing, bikesharing, micromobility, and other flexible transit options, provides significant environmental, logistical, and psychological benefits when supported by continuous technological innovation and sound public policies [75,76].

Table 1. An overview of the international experience of urban rail user anxiety.

Country	Objective	Actions	Source
Portland	The project evaluated the feasibility of implementing an electric vehicle (EV) car share as a sustainable, convenient, affordable, and reliable transportation option.	Improve transportation access. Educate the community. Use of electric vehicles in a way that benefits both individuals and the environment.	[76]
Cumbrian	The project seeks to enhance accessibility and foster inclusion in rail travel for individuals with disabilities and support needs.	Co-Designing Projects. Community Engagemen. Creative Initiatives. Accessibility Improvements. Feedback Mechanisms.	[77]
Sweden and Spain	Analyze and refine sustainable urban sharing initiatives, focusing specifically on Car Sharing Services (CSS) in Sweden and Spain.	Behavioral Economics Perspective Market and Environmental Analysis Stakeholder Interviews Experimental Design Policy Recommendations Geographical Focus	[73]
United States	This project aims to establish a resilient, future-ready transportation network in the United States.	Environmental Impact Assessment Raising Awareness and Support Stakeholder Engagement and Coordination Adapting to Changing Trends Utilizing Technology and Best Practices Public Awareness and Engagement	[78]
United States	This project aims to innovate and optimize public transit systems to meet growing mobility demands while reducing environmental impacts and enhancing operational efficiency.	Creative Solutions for Non-Car Mobility Marketing and Parking Support Flexible Support Structures Integration of Car-Sharing with Transit Services partnerships between car-sharing organizations and local governments or transit agencies.	[79]
Australia	The car-sharing services project aims to reduce resident vehicle ownership, thereby mitigating traffic congestion, alleviating parking scarcity, and enhancing urban mobility	Investment in Infrastructure Linking Car Share Services to Broader Goals Restricting Vehicle Fleet Growth Promoting Non-Car Ownership Lifestyles	[80]
California	This project seeks to alleviate sharing anxiety and bolster social acceptance of shared autonomous vehicles, thereby facilitating the transformation of public transport systems	Focus Groups and Stakeholder Interviews Development of the Societal Readiness Index Collaboration with Industry Partners Technical Interventions Data Collection and Health Monitoring Replicability Across Use Cases	[63]
Pacific Northwest (Alaska, Oregon, Washington, and Idaho)	This research project aims to analyze the patterns and drivers of micromobility in urban settings, particularly as cities respond to the disruptions caused by the COVID-19 crisis.	Infrastructure Development Integration with Public Transit Improved Signage and Lighting Community Engagement and Education Promotional Campaigns	[81]
India	The project’s main objective is to expedite the implementation of sustainable electric mobility systems in cities across India.	Encouraging E-Bike Usage Integration with Public Transport Promoting Sustainable Practices Establishing a Regulatory Framework Supporting Economic Opportunities Investment in Clean Vehicle Technology Government Initiatives and Policies	[82]
European Cities	Focusing on European urban settings, this project establishes a holistic framework to better understand and improve the management of shared micromobility, which is intended to optimize transport systems and encourage sustainable urban development.	Implementation of Infrastructure Adaptability in Urban Planning Regulatory Frameworks Monitoring and Evaluation Stakeholder Engagement	[83]

presents international case studies that illustrate how physical and perceptual factors influence the anxiety of urban rail transit users. Each case study details its project aims, implemented measures, and corresponding scholarly or institutional references, offering a comprehensive overview of the challenges and opportunities involved in integrating shared mobility into urban transport systems.

Passenger anxiety arises from multiple sources. Key factors include perceived crowding, delays, station accessibility, and difficulty in locating the correct train on a platform. The organization of transfer processes further exacerbates anxiety, with impact levels ranked from most to least severe. Additional contributors include transfer difficulties, traveling alone, time of day, risk of physical harassment, the presence of strangers, adverse environmental conditions, insufficient passenger guidance information, limited seating, unclear timetable information, platform gaps, and high noise levels. Moreover, ref. [84] demonstrated that cognitive symptoms related to anxiety are associated with the accessibility of public transportation systems. A complete set of these indicators is summarized in

Table 2. Consolidated key anxiety symptoms and urban transit indicators.

Symptom Category	Key Anxiety Symptoms	Associated Urban Transit Indicators	Sources	Comments/Key Findings
Cognitive	Fear of losing control and inability to cope	- Perceived inadequacies in service accessibility - Inequitable provision of transit services	[84]	Cognitive symptoms are largely linked to perceptions of unequal service quality and limited access to necessary transit facilities
	Poor concentration, confusion, and distractibility
	Poor memory and difficulty in reasoning
Behavioral	Avoidance of threat cues and situations	- Inadequate spatial configuration and unclear emergency egress routes - Poor visibility and limited spatial accessibility within transit areas	[53,55]	Behavioral responses reflect challenges in spatial design, indicating that insufficient planning for emergency escape and clear spatial cues may prompt avoidance behaviors
	Escape/flight responses and restlessness
Emotional	Feelings of nervousness, tension, and being wound up	- Inadequate safety features (e.g., poor lighting, limited surveillance) - Overcrowding and delays that compromise a sense of security and comfort	[15,45,46,47,51,53]	Emotional symptoms are exacerbated by environmental factors, such as lack of safety features and excessive crowding, that undermine users’ confidence in the transit system
	Edginess, jitteriness, and frustration
Physiological	Palpitations and tachycardia	- Service delays and overcrowding in transit stations - High passenger density affecting physical comfort	[46,51]	Physiological manifestations are significantly associated with operational inefficiencies, such as service delays and overcrowding, that trigger somatic stress responses
	Dizziness, nausea, and upset stomach
	Headaches, muscle aches, and chest tightness
Other codes	Sustainability	Community Well-Being	[85]	Sustainable transport can address both environmental and psychological concerns in urban settings.
		management	[85,86]
		Equality	[87,88]
		Monitoring	[85,89]
		Energy	[85,89]
		Green Urban Spaces	[85,86]
	Emotional Triggers	User Feedback	[90]	Emotional triggers in transportation disrupt passengers’ sense of control and affect mental health.
		Anxiety	[15]
		Stress	[45,87,91,92]
		Fear	[47,53]
		Perception	[47,93]
		Discomfort	[51,94]
	Strategy and policymaking	Crowd Management	[86]	Strategic policymaking in transportation can directly influence anxiety by shaping commuter experiences through the design of efficient, accessible, and reliable systems
		Policy	[84,87,89,95,96]
	Urban space	Accessibility	[87,96]	Conversely, urban environments designed for active transport, like walking and cycling, can reduce stress and improve mental health
		Lighting	[88]
		Signage	[97]
		Noise and Vibration	[89]
		Rail transit	[89,98]
		Physical environment	[53]
		Subway	[89]
		Metro	[53,86,99]
		Car-sharing	[57,66,68]	Emerging mobility solutions foster a resilient, user-centered urban transportation system. They address both psychological challenges and logistical barriers for rail transit users.
		Shared mobility	[57,59,63]
		Micromobility	[67,95,100]
		Personalization strategies	[101,102,103,104]

.

3. Materials and Methods

Qualitative content analysis is defined as a method that identifies patterns, themes, and categories in qualitative data [105]. It uncovers latent themes and generates meaningful interpretations [106]. Yet, it faces challenges due to text unit interdependence and the polysemy of words [107]. The method employs an inductive process of coding and categorizing raw data, similar to grounded theory development [108].

In its focused form, content analysis begins with initial coding guided by a theoretical framework. Themes emerge naturally and reveal relationships among variables. This process identifies primary codes and their interconnections for further analysis. In contrast, a directional approach uses a more structured process to enhance analytical depth and research rigor [109].

Qualitative data analysis requires creatively organizing raw data into manageable segments. This approach facilitates expanding meanings and identifying thematic content, thereby promoting transparency and scientific robustness [110]. An additional benefit is cost-effectiveness; researchers may use existing theories to target their analysis or begin with open-ended inquiries and refine later using specific categories [111].

The overall process involves coding all significant data using predetermined codes. Any text that does not fit these codes receives a new code. In some cases, analysis starts with predefined categories, and uncodable data are later reviewed to determine if they form a new category or a sub-category of an existing code [109].

This study employed a systematic review to examine the impact of physical and perceptual factors on the anxiety experienced by urban rail transit users, focusing on the literature published from 2000 to 2024. An initial search of the Web of Science and Scopus databases yielded 227 articles, which were subsequently narrowed down to 41 articles for detailed analysis in accordance with PRISMA guidelines (Figure 3). Key themes were iteratively identified and refined through extensive discussions among the research team to ensure the findings’ accuracy and reliability.

A qualitative content analysis was then conducted using MAXQDA 2020 for coding and data extraction. This process generated 2387 distinct codes that were organized into 9 broad categories and further refined into 39 subcategories, with their robustness validated through peer reviews and iterative testing. In addition to traditional academic sources, the study incorporated theoretical and grey literature, such as technical reports and policy documents, to comprehensively address issues related to urban rail transport, psychological dimensions of anxiety and stress, and sustainability principles, while excluding studies that focused solely on intercity transport or did not examine mental health impacts.

By integrating both traditional and grey literature, the study provided a thorough examination of the multifaceted factors contributing to anxiety in urban rail transit environments. The qualitative content analysis identified critical categories, including “sustainability”, “perceptual-physical components”, and “user anxiety”, that offer significant insights into the intricate relationship between the urban environment and the psychological well-being of rail transit users [112]. The synthesis of extracted concepts was performed through a cyclical process that homogenized categories and thematic axes, with triangulation methods and comparative discussions further enhancing the validity and reliability of the codes. Finally, an iterative coding and inductive classification process was employed to comprehensively address the primary research question, as illustrated in Figure 4a,b and Figure 5.

4. Results

4.1. Theories on Urban Transport from 1860 to 1910

The origins of transportation are closely tied to goods exchange, which led to overproduction and increased trade. These dynamics fostered the development of commuter routes and settlements for traders and caravans, playing a key role in trade network prosperity [113]. From the earliest emergence of cities until the mid-19th century, pedestrian movement was the dominant mode of transportation in urban areas. Urban design during this “quiet period of inner-city traffic” focused on human-scale dimensions, shaping streets and passages to accommodate pedestrian travel while relying primarily on human and animal power.

The late 19th century marked a significant transformation with the introduction of rail transport in urban settings. Railway stations became crucial hubs, influencing the spatial structure and organization of cities.

The early 20th century saw a surge in automobile production that contributed to suburbanization and increased physical distances between workplaces and residential areas. This development underlined the pivotal role of transportation in shaping urban growth. During this period, various urban planning theories emerged, including the linear city, the garden city, and models addressing unequal intersections, alongside Heh’s theories on public transport (

Table 3. Theories on urban transport from 1860 to 1910.

Period	Theorist	Year	The Most Important Nuclear Categories
			Anxiety	Transportation
1910–1860	From the emergence of cities to 1860		Fear and stress safety	The predominance of pedestrian movement
	-	1880–1860	crowded security	Relationship between the station and spatial performance Population development and the need for movement
	linear city	1890–1880	Physical components—accessibility needs-based	Increasing development around railway lines Use of new technologies in urban transport
	City garden	1900–1890	Physical components—accessibility Good peripheral vision	Avoid daily journeys Linking rail-based transport with the structural elements of Baghshahr Establish Letchworth and Welwyn centers close to the railway station
	Unlevel intersections	1910–1900	Security Crowded Congestion	Use of underground corridors, flyovers, and stairs for pedestrians Use of multi-level streets to separate different modes of transport

).

In 1882, Soria y Mata introduced the linear city theory. He proposed that urban development should extend outward from the city core using long, low strips of buildings along a central railway line. He viewed traffic issues as a major urban problem and considered this model a potential solution [114]. Ebenezer Howard developed the Garden City concept in response to challenges such as overpopulation, pollution, and epidemics. This concept promoted the integration of transportation networks with well-organized city centers, with high-speed rail serving as a vital connector between cities. The first garden city, Letchworth, was established in 1904, followed by Welwyn in 1920 [115]. Concurrently, Eugène Alfred Hénard addressed the traffic congestion caused by industrialization in early 20th century Paris by proposing urban planning solutions such as uneven intersections, terrain planning, and the separation of traffic types to mitigate congestion [116].

4.2. Theories on Urban Transport from 1930 to 1970

In the late 19th century, new modes of transport and communication marked a turning point for urban societies, spurring significant urban growth, especially at the beginning of the 20th century [117]. During this period, several influential theories emerged to address urban traffic challenges. These theories include those on public transport development, circular development by Sam Bass Warner, the spatial structure of large cities by Kenzo Tange, and the environmental zoning plan with a traffic-based approach by Colin Buchanan [118] (

Table 4. Theories on urban transport from 1930 to 1970.

Period	Theorist	Year	The Most Important Nuclear Categories
			Anxiety	Transportation
1970–1930	Public transport development circle (DOT)	1930–1900	Physical components—accessibility Congestion	Residential development around tram lines in the suburbs Increasing commercial use around tram stops
	Spatial structure of a large city	1970–1960	Physical components—accessibility Ecological features	Recognition of the transport system and architecture of buildings according to the characteristics of modern transport Increasing the use of transport according to the body and function
	Design of environmental zones with traffic concept spatial vision	1970–1960	Spatial vision Physical components—accessibility confidence Notices	Increasing need to separate pedestrian and bicycle traffic Increased use of public transport Increasing quality, reliability and ease of access to public transport

). In the United States, public transport was prioritized as a key focus. Private investors, seeking to maximize returns, concentrated on residential developments along suburban tram lines, thus fueling the development of public transport theory. In his book Suburban Tram, Sam Bass Warner examined the interaction between public transport and suburban real estate development, noting their role in decentralizing urban areas [119].

In the 1960s and 1970s, Colin Buchanan introduced the theory of environmental zoning with a traffic-based approach in response to rapid car ownership growth. Buchanan proposed that improving access to transportation was essential to addressing urban traffic challenges. His work has since become a cornerstone of urban traffic management theory [120].

4.3. Theories on Urban Transport from 1980 to the Present

By the 1980s, a rapid increase in car traffic created significant challenges for urban mobility and infrastructure, particularly in residential areas. Urban planning shifted to managing motorized vehicle movement while balancing the needs of both drivers and pedestrians. During this period, approaches such as New Urbanism, Smart City initiatives, Smart Transportation systems, and Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) emerged to address these challenges [121].

New Urbanism, a prominent postmodern movement in urban design, began during the post-World War II reconstruction era and became fully realized by the late 1970s, with its first practical applications appearing in the United States in the early 1980s. This movement responded to urban centers experiencing overburdened infrastructure and heavy reliance on automobiles, which led to urban fatigue and decreased quality of life. By promoting environmental sustainability and social equity, New Urbanism seeks to create livable and resilient urban spaces [121].

In the 21st century, challenges such as rapid urban expansion, demographic pressures, climate change, and economic instability have inspired new conceptualizations of urban spaces. The smart city concept integrates human capital, collective intelligence, and technology to address modern urban challenges and support urban growth [14].

A literature review covering 1990 to 2017 emphasizes that the internet and artificial intelligence are key technologies in the evolution of smart cities (

Table 5. Theories on urban transport from 1980 to the present.

Period	Theorist	Year	The Most Important Nuclear Categories
			Anxiety	Transportation
1980 until today	New Urbanism	1980–1970	- Crowded - Accessibility - Visibility - Spatial vision	- Emphasis on walking - Connection and continuity in passages and definition of hierarchy - Creating mixed uses - Strengthening public transportation - Create and manage a stop
	Smart City	2000–1990	- Environmental features - Physical features - Confidence - Notices - Visibility - Accessibility - Supervision	- Mixed land use - Creating walkable neighborhoods - Providing a variety of transportation options - Network connection of various types of transportation network - Creating activity centers around transportation systems - Construction of sidewalks in all new developments - Implementation of car-sharing policy
	Smart Transportation	2000–1990	- Individual characteristics - Sense of calm - Notices - Supervision - Confidence - Security - Accessibility	- Increasing the productivity of infrastructures - Improving the safety and efficiency of transport systems - Increasing public confidence in the transport network - Increasing customer satisfaction. - Overcoming some problems such as pollution - Improving connectivity and creating multimodal transport links - Reducing sources of air and environmental pollutants
	Transport-oriented development	2010–2000	- Increased density - Overcrowding - Safety - Confidence - Accessibility - Features of the environment	- Create pedestrian-friendly areas and safe access to public transport - Zoning criteria aligned with public transport modes - High density and balance at the same time - Diverse activities and mixed-use

). Research in this area focuses on intelligent transportation systems, traffic management, advanced networking, and positions cycling as a connected, intelligent mode of transport aligned with smart city principles [122].

A city is commonly recognized as a smart city when it successfully integrates human and social capital, transportation systems, energy resources, and communication infrastructure, while simultaneously promoting sustainable economic growth and ensuring a high quality of life for its residents.

In the comparative analysis of transportation trends across different eras, as illustrated in Figure 6, both commonalities and innovations within each period are evident. Key highlights include:

1860–1910: the advent of transportation innovations such as railways significantly transformed urban landscapes while maintaining a predominantly pedestrian-oriented urban structure.

1930–1970: the rise of suburbanization, coupled with increased car ownership, fundamentally reshaped cities, driving decentralization and inspiring the development of innovative zoning and land-use theories.

1980–Present: the paradigm of urban planning has shifted toward sustainability and technological integration, emphasizing resilience, equity, and environmental stewardship as guiding principles.

Achieving smart transportation requires a robust smart infrastructure in urban settings. Contemporary proposals emphasize the importance of real-time data acquisition and processing. These features enable instantaneous visualization and remote control, promoting healthier and more environmentally sustainable practices [91]. Integrating information and communication technology into both urban and interurban transport systems can substantially improve conditions for citizens, governments, and the environment [123].

The evolution of the Internet of Things (IoT) has enhanced urban management by connecting devices that oversee various aspects of city life.

Increased data availability has led to the adoption of machine learning (ML) techniques, improving system intelligence and functionality.

Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) have become a central focus for research. They apply ML and IoT methodologies to optimize routes, manage parking, control street lighting, prevent accidents, and detect road anomalies [124].

In parallel, the New Urbanism movement emerged in the early 1990s in the United States. This innovative urban development framework prioritizes public and non-motorized transportation. Calthorpe [60] envisioned urban planning centered on public transit and advocated for compact, pedestrian-friendly neighborhoods. Known as Transit-Oriented Development (TOD), this model encourages mixed-use areas to be established within approximately 2000 feet (600 m) of public transit stops. Such neighborhoods are designed around central social and commercial hubs and include attractive, accessible public spaces that promote walking and cycling. The approach emphasizes a dense, compact layout that integrates recreational green spaces and fosters inclusive living environments for diverse socio-economic groups in both suburban and urban contexts [124,125].

During the 1990s, public transportation in the United States underwent significant transformation, as cities invested in subways, trams, and light rail systems—exemplified by developments in San Diego. The primary objective of these initiatives was to increase ridership and generate revenue by capitalizing on rising land values near transit stations. Over the course of a decade, multiple projects were implemented under the Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) framework, with notable examples emerging in Boston and New Jersey.

By the early 2000s, additional public rail passenger transport projects were initiated, particularly in Chicago.

Today, the TOD approach continues to prove effective in advancing infrastructure development, and substantial demographic changes in the future are expected to further drive global demand for TOD solutions [125].

Figure 7 illustrates the significance of fear and transportation as key factors across different time periods.

• Personalization strategies

Recent advancements in rail transport show that personalization strategies can reduce passenger anxiety [15]. These strategies directly address issues such as congestion, delays, and safety concerns. One key approach is user customization through AI-enabled systems. These systems analyze passenger data to optimize scheduling and dispatch processes, ensuring a timely travel experience [126]. They also enable performance assessments of railway workers, which help in identifying overexertion risks and targeting health management measures [101].

Advanced technologies, such as artificial intelligence, machine learning, the Internet of Things, and big data analytics, are crucial to these strategies [102]. Personalized guidance systems that use real-time data assist passengers in choosing less congested routes, thereby lowering anxiety levels [103]. Additionally, the introduction of autonomous trains increases safety and reduces human error through centralized control systems [127]. Autonomous transportation systems further enhance mobility by integrating various transport modes and accommodating user preferences [104].

Personalization also improves psychological well-being. Tailored services enhance user satisfaction, comfort, and overall psychological health, which reduces travel-related stress [128]. By addressing factors such as individual motivation and interpersonal dynamics, personalization strategies can even help lower accident rates. In this context, psychological diagnostics are valuable for identifying hazards and improving crew performance in high-stress situations [101].

User-centered system design is another critical element. Systems that consider explicit and implicit trip planning preferences better meet passenger needs. Urban mobility applications, for example, allow users to choose safer or less crowded routes, thereby enhancing the overall travel experience [129].

Despite these benefits, challenges remain. Data privacy concerns, technical limitations, and resistance to adoption continue to persist [130]. Overcoming these obstacles requires robust data security measures, optimized algorithms, and effective public communication. Collaboration among government entities, industry stakeholders, and users is essential to manage conflicts and ensure safety [104,127].

• Policy

The formulation of rail transport policies is shaped by a range of stressors that impact public health and well-being. Persistent health disparities among vulnerable groups, such as older adults and individuals with disabilities, create significant challenges in accessing reliable transportation options [87,97]. Although rail transport is often more sustainable than road-based systems, environmental stressors like pollution and noise near rail corridors may inadvertently elevate health risks for surrounding communities [89]. Consequently, there is an urgent need to integrate robust environmental safeguards into transport policies. This requirement, combined with the need for evidence-based decision-making, highlights the importance of adopting a holistic, integrated approach that addresses health disparities, mental health, and environmental impacts simultaneously. By implementing such comprehensive strategies, policymakers can develop transport systems that both improve the quality of life for users and promote sustainable, long-term wellbeing [87].

• Perception

Passenger anxiety in rail transport arises from a complex interplay of perceptual, environmental, and security factors. Limited station accessibility, such as inadequate public transit connections and scarce parking facilities, significantly increases commuter stress [15,87]. Overcrowded train compartments reduce personal space and heighten discomfort, although solitary travel can also provoke anxiety [45,47]. Environmental stressors, including excessive operational noise and ambiguous travel information during transfers, further intensify distress, highlighting the need for improved passenger information systems [89,96].

Security concerns, especially the pervasive fear of crime among vulnerable groups like women, necessitate comprehensive safety measures. Evidence indicates that expanded CCTV surveillance and a strong police presence deter criminal behavior and provide reassurance to passengers [47], while the visible presence of uniformed service staff and metro police enhances perceptions of safety and reduces the risk of violent crime [53]. The study advocates for a holistic approach to rail transit design and management that addresses physical, perceptual, and security dimensions to effectively mitigate anxiety and enhance the overall travel experience [54,88,95].

• Fear

Recent studies investigate how both service design and environmental elements influence anxiety and fear among inner-city rail transit users. Ref. [53] notes that public transportation design significantly shapes female passengers’ safety perceptions and moderates their fear and anxiety. Service reliability is critical; inconsistent schedules and unexpected delays create uncertainty and increase vulnerability, thereby heightening fear. Conversely, providing clear, timely information on schedules, delays, and safety measures helps empower passengers and reduce apprehension. Furthermore, a visible presence of well-trained staff and security personnel can deter potential offenders and offer additional reassurance.

Complementing these service-related findings, ref. [54] highlights environmental contributors to fear within railway stations. Their research shows that poorly lit and secluded areas intensify feelings of insecurity.

Design strategies that promote natural surveillance, such as transparent shelters and open station layouts, are essential for enhancing visibility and minimizing fear.

The overall condition of station facilities is also crucial; neglected or vandalized environments contribute to perceptions of disorder and lawlessness, which further increase fear. Thus, regular maintenance and the creation of clean, well-organized spaces are vital for fostering a sense of safety and well-being.

• Stress

Stress in rail transport arises from a complex interplay of psychological and environmental factors that elevate passenger anxiety [46]. Overcrowding during peak hours reduces personal space and causes significant discomfort, while irregular service schedules and poor station conditions further increase commuter stress [97]. Prolonged exposure to high operational noise is associated with psychological distress and cardiovascular risks, highlighting the severe health implications of noise pollution [87,89]. Moreover, uncertainty during train transfers—often worsened by inadequate or unclear passenger information systems—further amplifies anxiety [93].

Health concerns, such as a higher risk of airborne infections in crowded settings, have been particularly evident during the COVID-19 pandemic [7].

Overall, these findings underscore the need for comprehensive measures that improve station environments, optimize service schedules, implement effective noise reduction strategies, and provide clear, real-time passenger information.

• Safety

Research [100] shows that safety issues increase anxiety, particularly among women, which reduces their willingness to adopt emerging mobility solutions that promote a sustainable urban transit environment. Research [67] confirms that safety is a key determinant for user acceptance of sustainable transportation systems; it indicates that concerns over potential accidents and inadequate safety measures contribute to user anxiety and hinder the wider adoption of electric micromobility options. Research [63] suggests that safety-related apprehensions are central to the anxiety experienced by users of shared transportation services. Accordingly, the study recommends enhancing design standards and enforcing stricter regulatory measures to mitigate user anxiety and facilitate a smoother transition toward sustainable urban transport networks.

• Anxiety

Anxiety in rail travel arises from both immediate threats and systemic inefficiencies. Operational disruptions and unclear communication increase commuter stress and reduce a sense of control [15].

Uncertainty about train schedules and unexpected service interruptions create additional unease. Environmental stressors such as overcrowding, excessive noise, and poor station design further harm psychological well-being [87]. Gender disparities in perceived safety intensify anxiety among female passengers, particularly during waiting periods due to vulnerabilities and insufficient security measures [131].

The study advocates for targeted interventions, including enhanced security presence, strategically designed waiting areas, and improved lighting. It also calls for better service reliability, upgraded environmental quality, and transparent communication to foster a safer and less stressful travel experience.

• Shared mobility

Shared mobility initiatives aim to improve transportation efficiency and reduce reliance on private vehicles, thereby promoting sustainability [57,132]. These systems can lower carbon emissions and ease urban congestion by optimizing transport resources [133]. The integration of electric vehicles, such as e-rickshaws, further supports sustainability goals. However, range anxiety remains a significant barrier to their broader adoption [134]. Establishing a cooperation-oriented framework is essential for developing comprehensive, multi-modal shared mobility systems. Such a framework enables the seamless integration of different transport modes and ensures more efficient resource allocation [135]. Commuter experiences are also affected by service unpredictability and overcrowding, which increase transport-related anxiety. Moreover, environmental concerns—ranging from pollution to heightened health risks during the COVID-19 pandemic—exacerbate these anxieties [7]. These findings underline the need to address both operational reliability and environmental challenges to achieve sustainable urban mobility.

• Management

Environmental noise and crowd density are identified as key contributors to passenger stress. According to [86], effective crowd control—achieved through optimal passenger density, well-designed circulation spaces, and real-time monitoring—helps prevent overcrowding that may lead to panic and psychological distress. The International Transport Forum [95] recommends a comprehensive approach that combines noise reduction with crowd management and strengthened safety measures.

Such integrated strategies not only improve operational performance but also enhance passengers’ perceived safety. This, in turn, reduces anxiety and increases public confidence in urban rail transit systems.

• Micromobility

Recent research shows that user anxiety is crucial for the successful adoption and operation of micromobility within sustainable rail networks. Gender differences significantly impact user acceptance; for example, female users report heightened concerns regarding personal safety and device handling, which may hinder broader adoption [100]. Studies in university settings further reveal that worries about the safety and reliability of e-micromobility options discourage individuals from incorporating these modes into their transit routines [67]. Moreover, sharing anxiety—defined as discomfort with communal use of vehicles—emerges as a substantial barrier that reduces participation in shared micromobility services [63]. Demographic and spatial analyses of shared-mobility platforms, such as bike-sharing, car-sharing, e-scooters, and ride-hailing, indicate that safety concerns and perceptions of inadequate infrastructure are closely linked to the sustainability goals of rail transport [57]. Finally, research on micromobility demonstrates that fears regarding operational safety extend beyond individual choices, affecting the resilience and long-term sustainability of urban transit networks and influencing policy and strategic planning [132].

• Metro

Urban metro rail systems are essential for city mobility but face operational and environmental issues that heighten commuter anxiety.

Challenges such as unreliable service, poor station and train design, overcrowding, and safety concerns negatively impact passenger comfort and trust. Unpredictable delays and irregular schedules cause uncertainty, disrupt routines, and increase stress, highlighting the need for consistent timetables and real-time updates [15].

Station and train design also affects passenger well-being; inadequate lighting, uncomfortable seating, and unclear signage contribute to discomfort and insecurity [88]. Overcrowding during peak hours increases psychological stress by creating a sense of confinement, indicating the need for higher train capacity and better passenger flow management [51]. Safety concerns, especially during nighttime travel, are intensified by the absence of visible staff or surveillance, further increasing anxiety [54].

Improving security through greater staff presence and better station visibility is therefore vital to enhancing passenger confidence.

• Rail Transit

Previous studies on urban rail transit have shown that a combination of operational and environmental factors can contribute to increased commuter anxiety. Operational stressors, including overcrowding, service delays, challenges related to station accessibility, difficulties in identifying the correct train on platforms, and convoluted transfer procedures, substantially undermine passenger comfort and discourage the use of rail services, thereby highlighting the critical interplay between system design and commuter well-being [15]. Empirical studies have shown that adverse environmental conditions, such as vibrations from train seats, sudden noise, and abrupt changes in aural pressure, especially during tunnel passages, negatively affect passengers’ visual and auditory comfort, thereby increasing commuter anxiety [136]. Additionally, during the COVID-19 pandemic, additional stressors emerged. Passengers experienced increased anxiety due to health-related fears of infection, as well as perceptions of declining service quality in public transit systems [137].

• Accessibility

Feelings of nervousness, tension, and being wound up

This integrative review reveals that accessibility challenges in urban rail systems significantly increase anxiety among inner-city transit users. Such anxiety—marked by persistent unease, nervousness, and tension—is driven by the combined effects of physical barriers, environmental stressors, and systemic limitations [87].

The absence of infrastructure such as ramps, elevators, and escalators create significant obstacles for passengers with mobility impairments, leading to both physical and psychological distress [138]. These barriers contribute to feelings of exclusion and isolation, particularly among individuals with disabilities. Research shows that poorly adapted environments can trigger sensory overload, further intensifying anxiety and diminishing trust in the transit system [85,89]. Systemic failures, such as unclear signage, unreliable assistance services, and negative staff interactions, exacerbate the problem by limiting access to necessary information and support [88].

These issues disproportionately affect passengers with cognitive impairments and those unfamiliar with the system, further undermining their confidence and travel experience.

• Lighting

Lighting plays a crucial role in shaping the commuter experience. Poor or insufficient lighting, particularly at night, increases anxiety by reducing passengers’ sense of safety and overall well-being [88]. Conversely, well-designed lighting strategies help reduce these negative effects, contributing to a more secure and comfortable environment.

Enhancements in station design, such as improved lighting, clear signage, and accessible facilities, are vital for reducing commuter stress and improving the transit experience. Studies also emphasize the importance of visual comfort; abrupt changes in light levels, such as when high-speed trains pass through tunnels, can cause discomfort and heighten anxiety [139].

• Signage

Empirical studies show that unclear or poorly designed signage increases confusion and stress among rail transit users, especially in complex stations or time-sensitive situations [97].

Effective signage design should use high-contrast colors, legible fonts, and clear icons to enhance accessibility, particularly for visually impaired passengers. When these standards are not followed, signage can fail to reduce anxiety and may deter vulnerable groups from using public transportation [88].

Research highlights the benefits of multi-sensory signage systems, which include tactile elements like Braille and auditory cues, in improving accessibility and reducing anxiety [88,97].

Integrating clear, inclusive, and multi-sensory signage is essential to promoting user confidence and independence in urban rail environments.

Figure 8a,b, and Figure 9 illustrate the fifteen principal codes identified in the review. For each code, the recurrence frequency across all data sources is depicted, and the network of inter-code relationships is mapped.

5. Discussion

The study highlights the intricate relationship between physical and perceptual factors in determining the anxiety experienced by inner-city rail transit users. It shows that the visible presence of service personnel and police, particularly when in clearly identifiable uniforms, can substantially reduce passenger anxiety, especially among women [47]. This observation aligns with previous research on public transportation systems, including Bus Rapid Transit networks, which found that tangible environmental elements, such as ambient lighting and overt surveillance measures, are key to fostering a sense of security [53]. In addition, effective communication plays a crucial role in mitigating anxiety. Despite delays being a common feature in urban transit, providing timely and sensitive information about delay durations and their causes has been found to significantly lower passenger stress [15,54].

Integrating passenger behavior attributes into personalized guidance systems significantly improves route recommendations and overall transit experiences. By incorporating real-time behavioral feedback and individualized preferences, these systems deliver reliable, customized travel solutions that reduce anxiety by fostering enhanced security and confidence [103]. Similarly, research highlights the essential role of context-aware information delivery across diverse transport modes in easing passenger stress. This study demonstrates that personalized communication—which adjusts dynamically to factors such as traffic conditions, service disruptions, and unique travel habits—provides passengers with accurate and timely information. Consequently, this adaptive approach not only increases travel efficiency but also strengthens user confidence, effectively reducing anxiety associated with unexpected delays or navigation issues [101].

The literature further reveals that individual characteristics, including age, gender, and educational background, influence the anxiety response, with female passengers particularly experiencing increased nervousness due to heightened fears of violence or sexual harassment [46,140]. This emphasizes the need for communication strategies tailored to different demographic vulnerabilities. Moreover, the discussion underscores the impact of population density and overcrowding on commuter well-being. In metropolitan areas operating at high capacity, factors such as waiting time, travel reliability, and overall passenger comfort critically affect user satisfaction [51].

However, higher demand often results in overcrowding, which can exacerbate anxiety through the creation of excessive noise and sounds in transit environments [45,141,142]. Complementary evidence indicates that measures like sufficient lighting and the proactive deployment of staff can effectively counter these negative effects, highlighting the importance of comprehensive, multi-faceted interventions [7,138,143].

The findings of the present study align with previous research, particularly regarding demographic differences and gender perspectives on the use of electric micro-motors [67,100]. To boost the adoption of shared mobility, it is essential to enhance infrastructure, develop safety guidelines tailored to specific user groups, and ensure operational transparency, thereby reducing the anxiety associated with these systems [57]. Furthermore, the study by [132] provides significant insights into spatial and socio-economic distribution patterns. It reveals that shared mobility users typically reside in areas well-connected to public transport hubs, including railway stations, yet notable disparities exist in service access and perceived quality. These observations are clearly reflected in the current study’s results.

Sustainable design and smart technologies show promise in further reducing passenger anxiety. For instance, green station designs that incorporate natural light, efficient ventilation, and low-carbon materials have been proven to alleviate commuter stress [144]. Smart congestion management technologies enhance equitable access and help prevent overcrowding, thereby mitigating anxiety related to transit environments [29]. Technical reports consistently demonstrate that providing real-time, precise information on train schedules and crowding conditions enhances passengers’ sense of control during disruptions [112]. In line with international guidelines, the strategic use of surveillance measures and guidance personnel reinforces security, reducing uncertainty and anxiety in unpredictable situations [28].

Overall, the review suggests that an integrative approach—addressing environmental, social, and economic dimensions—can yield more effective strategies for mitigating user anxiety. Initiatives such as creating green spaces near transit stations, enhancing pedestrian infrastructure, and expanding digital access to travel information not only lower energy consumption and pollution but also bolster passenger trust and confidence [145,146]. These multidimensional interventions are vital for developing sustainable, user-centered urban rail systems.

6. Conclusions

This study highlights the complex interaction between environmental features and human perception in shaping the anxiety of railway users (Figure 10). The findings indicate that mitigating such anxiety requires the creation of safe, accessible, and comfortable public transit environments. As key elements of urban infrastructure, transit stations must adopt diverse design and operational strategies to foster reliability and a stress-free atmosphere.

A crucial distinction is made between anxiety—an emotional response to perceived threats—and fear, which results from immediate, tangible dangers. This difference is essential for accurately interpreting commuter experiences and developing targeted interventions.

The study demonstrates that incorporating sustainability indicators into the design of inner-city rail spaces significantly reduces user anxiety by improving environmental quality, safety, and comfort. Furthermore, advanced personalization strategies, such as tailored guidance systems and context-aware communication, play a critical role in mitigating anxiety among urban rail transit users. These user-centric approaches not only enhance operational efficiency but also promote a heightened sense of security and well-being, ultimately contributing to a more satisfying and resilient transit experience.

From a physical standpoint, measures such as effective density management, optimal lighting, and strict noise control in stations and carriages help create a calmer and more sustainable transit environment. In addition, integrating shared mobility approaches, such as micromobility and car-sharing, complements these strategies.

From a perceptual perspective, the provision of clear, continuous information by trained personnel, supported by reliable monitoring equipment, enhances users’ sense of control and security, thereby reducing anxiety.

This study emphasizes that perceptions of safety are essential for reducing anxiety and increasing public transportation usage, especially among women who report higher fear levels than men. Enhancing these safety perceptions involves the visible and active presence of service personnel, including metro police, and the strategic use of CCTV cameras and effective lighting throughout the day and night. The use of clearly identifiable uniforms further reinforces passenger confidence and helps mitigate anxiety.

Improving rail transit design is also pivotal; this includes eliminating blind spots and enhancing overall visibility. Moreover, balancing population density with service capacity is critical for ensuring a secure and comfortable transit environment.

Finally, providing regularly updated and easily accessible train schedule information, combined with initiatives that consider demographic factors such as gender and age, supports the development of a more inclusive and secure transit experience.

While delays are inevitable in public transportation, fostering a reassuring atmosphere—through transparent communication, consistent service reliability, and addressing both physical and psychological safety—can mitigate the resultant anxiety.

The study offers important insights for policymakers regarding passenger reluctance to use rail systems during specific times, suggesting that targeted interventions can enhance confidence, improve safety protocols, and elevate overall satisfaction. This strategic framework aims to increase ridership and strengthen trust in public transportation networks by integrating sustainable practices that meet the contemporary mental health needs of urban citizens, thereby establishing critical socio-environmental infrastructure.

The authors argue that adopting a holistic approach is a catalyst for immediate improvements in commuter experience and supports the long-term vibrancy of urban life.

Future research should develop advanced methodologies to assess the dynamic relationship between environmental factors and passenger perceptions of safety and comfort. Longitudinal studies, incorporating real-time data from wearable sensors and mobile applications, are recommended to more accurately evaluate passenger emotional states and the effects of infrastructure, policy changes, and technological advancements on anxiety levels.

Further investigations are encouraged to examine how cultural and socio-economic factors, especially among vulnerable groups such as women, the elderly, and individuals with disabilities, shape safety perceptions to ensure inclusive public transportation design. From a design perspective, exploring innovative architectural solutions and integrating smart technologies, such as AI-powered surveillance and dynamic lighting, along with behavioral interventions like public awareness campaigns and community engagement, are promising strategies to enhance safety, comfort, and trust among passengers.