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Review

A Review of the Properties, Transport, and Fate of Organophosphate Esters in Polar Snow and Ice

by
Xiang Zou
School of Geography, Geomatics, and Planning, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou 221116, China
Sustainability 2025, 17(6), 2493; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17062493
Submission received: 31 December 2024 / Revised: 25 February 2025 / Accepted: 9 March 2025 / Published: 12 March 2025
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Abstract

:
Organophosphate esters (OPEs) are emerging organic pollutants widely used as industrial flame retardants and plasticizers in recent years. These compounds have been detected in various environmental media. Snow, a fundamental component of glaciers, plays a key role in the effective removal of organic pollutants from the atmosphere. Consequently, glacier accumulation zones receive substantial deposits containing OPEs, making them significant sinks for OPEs. The presence of OPEs in snow and ice serves as a natural archive for studying their environmental behavior and fate. This review examines the occurrence, sources, and impacts of OPEs in polar and middle-to-low-latitude glaciers based on a comprehensive analysis of the existing literature. Studies indicate that OPE concentrations in snow and ice are generally low, primarily influenced by long-range atmospheric and oceanic transport, with additional contributions from local anthropogenic activities. With global warming, snow and ice meltwater has become a secondary source of OPEs, posing a threat to the cryosphere ecosystems. As research on OPEs in snow and ice is still in its early stages, this review provides valuable insights into their environmental behavior and future research directions.

1. Introduction

The polar regions, while remote from human industrial activity, host some of Earth’s most pristine ecosystems [1]. However, extensive research indicates that these regions are increasingly threatened by pollutants originating from anthropogenic emissions in mid- and low-latitude areas [2,3]. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs), known for their long-range transport potential, resistance to degradation, and bioaccumulation, have been widely detected in various environmental media in the cold regions [4]. Due to the “cold-trapping” effect, snow and ice in the cryosphere act as major sinks for POPs [5]. Ice cores, with their high resolution, high fidelity, and abundant information, are considered ideal media for studying the geochemical behavior of POPs and have attracted widespread attention from the scientific community [6].
In the context of global warming, snow and ice in the cryosphere face increasing risks of melting. The melting of snow and ice releases various POPs stored in ice sheets, making the cryosphere a secondary source of organic pollutants [7,8,9]. Studies have shown that rising temperatures in polar and high-altitude regions enhance the volatilization of chemical substances, increasing their atmospheric diffusion potential and facilitating long-range transport [10]. Model predictions suggest that a 1 °C rise in global temperature could increase the volatility of POPs by 10% to 15% [11]. With ongoing industrial development and intensified climate change, more emerging pollutants are expected to reach the polar regions.
Organophosphate esters (OPEs) have recently garnered extensive attention as synthetic industrial chemicals widely used as flame retardants, plasticizers, and additives in industries such as electronics, construction materials, and consumer goods [12,13]. OPEs can be classified into chlorinated and non-chlorinated types based on their substituents. Chlorinated OPEs, predominantly used as flame retardants in textiles, furniture, and electronic devices, are the most persistent type and are often present at the highest concentrations in the environment [14,15]. Non-chlorinated OPEs, primarily used as hydraulic fluids, defoamers, and plasticizers, are more prone to release into the environment through volatilization, leaching, or abrasion during production, transport, and disposal [16,17]. OPEs are a class of organic compounds ranging from strongly hydrophilic and highly polar to strongly hydrophobic and non-polar. Their log octanol-water partition coefficients (logKow) range from −0.65 to 9.43, overlapping with those of polychlorinated biphenyls (4 < logKow < 7) and organochlorine pesticides (Table 1) [18]. Studies confirm the accumulation of OPEs in lakes [19,20], precipitation [21,22,23], seawater [24,25,26], sediments [27,28], soils [29,30], and the atmosphere [31,32,33].
The phasing out of brominated flame retardants (e.g., polybrominated diphenyl ethers [PBDEs]), short-chain chlorinated paraffins, and Dechlorane Plus under the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (http://www.pops.int, accessed on 25 May 2024) has significantly increased the demand for OPEs as alternatives over the past few decades [27,33,34]. The global annual usage of OPEs increased from 300,000 tons in 2004 to 620,000 tons in 2013, with market demand growing by 5.2% between 2016 and 2021 [35]. Chlorinated OPEs, such as TCEP, TCIPP, and TDCIPP, exhibit greater persistence and stronger adverse effects compared to PBDEs [35]. Consequently, the European Union designated these three OPEs as substances of very high concern in 1995 and 2000 [36]. Research shows that OPEs possess neurotoxicity, reproductive toxicity, carcinogenicity, and genotoxicity, impacting the neurodevelopment, metabolism, and reproductive systems of plants and animals [37,38]. Since 2014, the European Union has restricted the use of certain OPEs in children’s toys, and the United States implemented regulations in 2017 to limit the use of chlorinated OPEs in children’s products. However, no international regulations currently address the environmental safety concerns associated with rising OPE consumption [22]. Although OPE emissions are a relatively recent phenomenon, their detection in remote snow and ice highlights their global distribution (Figure 1). Thus, understanding the occurrence, migration, and environmental behavior of OPEs in snow and ice is crucial. Such knowledge is essential for assessing the risks of OPE accumulation in cold regions under climate change. This review aims to provide valuable insights into the global transport and accumulation of OPEs in snow and ice, serving as a reference for future research.

2. Persistence Mechanisms of POPs in Snow and Ice

Past studies suggested that atmospheric pollutants undergo dilution, dispersion, and degradation within the Earth system, resulting in declining concentrations with increasing distance from emission sources [39]. However, long-range transported organic pollutants were detected in cold environments by subsequent studies [40,41], confirming that the low temperatures of these regions facilitate the global migration of POPs. Investigations into the sources and distribution of POPs in polar regions began in 1973, identifying the widespread presence of low-molecular-weight semi-volatile compounds under polar conditions [42]. Subsequent analyses demonstrate that polar cold environments are critical drivers of the global migration and deposition of POPs.
The cold environment of high-latitude regions promotes the condensation and deposition of gaseous POPs, resulting in increasing concentrations with latitude—a phenomenon known as the “cold-trapping effect” [43,44]. In contrast, at middle and low latitudes, POPs are primarily influenced by seasonal evaporation and diurnal temperature changes, gradually “hopping” toward higher latitudes. This process, termed the “grasshopper effect”, enables compounds to migrate to polar regions through repeated cycles of deposition and evaporation, ultimately delivering POPs to the poles [45]. Comparative analyses between tropical and high-latitude regions have revealed relatively higher concentrations of POPs in the latter, with more volatile compounds preferentially accumulating in polar regions [46].
Snowfall, the fundamental component of glaciers, serves as one of the most effective mechanisms for removing atmospheric organic pollutants. This removal process depends on the physicochemical properties of POPs and the surface area of snow [47]. Significant seasonal variations also influence the removal of POPs from the atmosphere, with extensive wet deposition and lower temperatures during winter enhancing the removal of particle-bound POPs [48]. Glacier formation involves snow accumulation, metamorphism, and compaction [49]. While the density of overlying snow on glaciers typically measures about 0.4 g/cm3, increased snowfall compresses the underlying layers, reducing porosity and permeability to form firn [50]. Firn continues to compact under pressure, eventually reaching a density of approximately 0.9 g/cm3 and transitioning into glacial ice (Figure 2) [51]. As pollutants are buried deeper during the glacial ice formation process, glaciers become significant reservoirs for POPs [50]. Evidence from atmospheric deposition monitoring has demonstrated that snow and ice melt serve as secondary sources of POPs, including OPEs, in polar environments [52,53,54]. Re-volatilization from glacier surfaces represents another pathway for the release of POPs (Figure 2). While the low temperatures (<0 °C) of polar and high-altitude glacier environments significantly limit surface evaporation, accelerated airflow above glaciers can enhance evaporation rates [3,43]. These compounds can then re-enter the polar atmosphere through re-volatilization. As POPs accumulate in the atmosphere, they eventually return to glacier surfaces via wet deposition, creating a cyclical process. Previous studies have found that re-volatilization from glaciers contributes up to 60% of the deposition of chlorinated compounds [55,56]. This dynamic interplay of deposition, accumulation, and re-volatilization underscores the complex mechanisms driving the accumulation of OPEs in polar snow and ice.

3. OPE Distribution in Snow and Ice

3.1. Arctic

The widespread detection of OPEs across various polar environmental media serves as an early warning of their extensive global distribution. Compared to Antarctica, the Arctic is more directly influenced by pollutants originating from human activity centers such as Europe and North America. As a result, the Arctic has become a focal point for studies on OPE enrichment [47,57]. While some research on OPEs in the Arctic has been conducted in sub-Arctic seawater and aerosols from the European high Arctic, the majority of studies have focused on the Svalbard [58]. Human activities in this region have led to OPE concentrations that are two orders of magnitude higher than those of brominated flame retardants [29,49]. Studies show that although OPE concentrations in Arctic biota are relatively low, these compounds have bioaccumulated, leading to biological magnification effects [59,60]. Research on OPEs in Arctic snow and ice is still in its early stages, with current findings indicating that total OPE concentrations are one order of magnitude lower than those found in snow and ice from high-altitude regions in middle- and low-latitude areas (Table 2). Using an icebreaker to collect six surface snow samples from the northeastern Arctic Ocean, researchers found that the average concentration of total OPEs was 5.84 ng/L, indicating significantly lower pollution levels compared to middle-to-low-latitude regions with intensive human activity [61]. Their study also revealed a decreasing trend in OPE concentrations from coastal areas to the open ocean, with chlorinated OPEs accounting for 66 ± 14% of the total OPE concentrations, indicating their greater environmental persistence [61]. By measuring the concentration of OPEs in lakes primarily replenished by Arctic snow and ice meltwater, researchers found that the meltwater in 2015 contributed 7.0 ± 3.2 kg of OPEs [52]. This finding confirms that, under global warming, OPEs accumulated in snow and ice can be transported and enriched in downstream lakes through meltwater [52]. Although ice cores are valuable for reconstructing past atmospheric pollutant deposition, their use in OPE studies has been limited due to the difficulty of obtaining cores and analyzing trace-level OPE concentrations. Recently, researchers reconstructed the atmospheric deposition sequence of OPE concentrations from the 1970s to the 2010s using ice cores from the high Arctic regions of Canada’s Oxford Icefield and Devon Ice Cap (Figure 3) [62]. The study revealed that TPP and TCIPP were the dominant OPEs in the Devon Ice Cap, with TCIPP deposition flux exhibiting exponential growth [62]. This research not only reconstructed the history of OPE emissions driven by human activity in the Northern Hemisphere but also highlighted the irreplaceable role of ice cores in studying the historical atmospheric deposition of OPEs.

3.2. Antarctica

The population distribution and industrial development in the Southern Hemisphere are significantly lower than those in the Northern Hemisphere. Additionally, the fast-moving seawater of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current acts as a barrier, preventing some pollutants from entering Antarctica via ocean currents [68,69]. As a result, Antarctica is less impacted by human activities compared to the Arctic. There are relatively few studies on the environmental behavior of OPEs in Antarctica, focusing mainly on the enrichment of OPEs in soil, water, atmosphere, and organisms in the Antarctic Peninsula [70,71,72,73]. However, with the increase in global OPE consumption and local human activities in Antarctica, a large amount of OPEs are also enriched in Antarctic inland snow and ice through atmospheric circulation and ocean current transport. During China’s 27th Antarctic scientific expedition, researchers collected 120 surface snow samples along the route from Zhongshan Station to Kunlun Station in East Antarctica. They analyzed these samples to determine the concentrations of 12 OPEs [64]. The results showed that five OPEs (TCrP, TDCIPP, TEHP, TEP, and TMP) were not detected, while TCPP, TCEP, TBP, and TBEP were detected in most samples, among which TCEP was quantified in more than half of the samples at a concentration of 0.05 to 2.0 ng/L [64]. Additionally, this study found that the TCEP concentration in the snow ice of the East Antarctic Plateau was significantly positively correlated with altitude [64]. A large number of studies have revealed that the cold environment at high altitudes contributes to the enrichment of semi-volatile pollutants. In mountain glaciers at middle and low latitudes, studies have identified an altitude-dependent distribution of OPE concentrations in glaciers, likely associated with the retention of pollutants under cold high-altitude climate conditions [46,66,67]. At the Dome C Concordia Station in Antarctica, surface snow was found to have ∑OPE concentrations ranging from 7.2 to 20.5 ng/L [63]. These concentrations are slightly higher than the ∑OPE concentrations measured in the Arctic but are approximately an order of magnitude lower than those in middle-to-low-latitude mountain glaciers (Table 2) [61,63].

3.3. Tibetan Plateau

Unlike the role of OPE enrichment in polar regions as an early warning signal, which has attracted widespread attention from global scholars, research on OPE enrichment in middle-to-low-latitude high-altitude regions started relatively late. These regions are closer to anthropogenic pollution sources and face pressures from intensive surrounding industrial and agricultural activities. Researchers first detected OPEs in urban soils of the Tibetan Plateau, where human activities are concentrated, and identified potential risks associated with EHDPP in the soil [22,74]. Studies in high-altitude mountainous areas in Europe revealed that the concentrations of gaseous TCEP, TCIPP, and TPHP were significantly dependent on temperature. This phenomenon occurs because these compounds adsorb onto snow at lower temperatures and are released into the atmosphere during snowmelt [75,76]. The earliest finding of OPE enrichment in snow and ice in middle-to-low-latitude high-altitude regions was in the Hailuogou Glacier (Figure 1), where the total ∑OPE concentration in snow was approximately 408 ng L−1, with TBEP being the most abundant compound (47% of ∑OPEs), followed by TPhP [65]. Additionally, in the Laohugou Glacier in the northeastern Tibetan Plateau (Figure 1), studies identified the distribution characteristics of OPEs in fresh snowfall collected at different elevations, with an average ∑OPE concentration of 99.84 ng L−1, showing a strong correlation between OPE deposition and altitude [66]. Research on snow from different altitudes in the Tianshan No. 1 Glacier revealed a ∑OPE concentration of 131.25 ng L−1, with chlorinated OPEs (TCPP) contributing 74% of the ∑OPE concentration [67]. Statistical analyses comparing OPE concentrations in polar and middle-to-low-latitude glaciers (Table 2) indicated that ∑OPE concentrations in middle-to-low-latitude regions were approximately an order of magnitude higher than in polar regions, primarily because the former are closer to anthropogenic emission sources.

4. Drivers of OPE Distribution in Polar Snow and Ice

4.1. Atmospheric Transport

Previous studies believed that the half-life of OPEs was lower than the long-distance atmospheric transmission standard threshold of the Stockholm Convention (2 days), and OPEs were incorrectly evaluated as degradable and did not have long-distance atmospheric transport properties [77]. However, researchers have successively detected the enrichment of OPEs in the Arctic atmosphere, soil, and snow and ice, indicating that the persistence and long-distance atmospheric transport properties of OPEs in the environment may have been underestimated [27,52]. Recent evidence indicates that many OPEs exist in the gas phase rather than the particle phase [78,79]. Their persistence and long-range atmospheric transport (LRAT) potential may be relatively low due to their high water solubility [18]. Studies show that gaseous OPEs are readily removed from the atmosphere through wet deposition processes [18]. In addition, aryl OPEs (e.g., TPP) exhibit significantly higher reaction rates with OH radicals compared to alkyl or chlorinated alkyl-substituted OPEs, as reflected by their typically higher rate constants with OH radicals [80]. Additionally, studies show that the atmospheric half-lives of TPhP, TEHP, and TDCIPP bound to aerosol particles are 5.6, 4.3, and 13 days, respectively, which are all higher than the threshold of the Stockholm Convention long-distance atmospheric transmission standard [35,81]. The long-distance transport of particulate OPEs in the atmosphere is facilitated by the particle phase or black carbon within the particles, which can effectively prevent the oxidation of OPEs and enhance their atmospheric persistence and transport potential [82]. The environmental behavior assessment models also confirmed that chlorinated OPEs had long-distance atmospheric transmission characteristics [82]. By analyzing aerosol samples collected by scientific research ships in the Arctic waters, researchers found that chlorinated OPEs, including TCEP and TCPP, dominate the atmosphere, and their sources were mainly contributed by long-distance atmospheric transport [83,84]. A high proportion of chlorinated OPEs was detected in polar snow and ice, indicating that chlorinated OPEs might have been more durable than non-chlorinated OPEs in the polar environment and were more conducive to long-distance transport in the atmosphere [61,64]. The detection of TCEP in a large number of samples from the East Antarctic interior confirms that the enrichment of OPEs in snow and ice mainly comes from atmospheric transport, both in the gas phase and particle phase [63,64].

4.2. Ocean Current Transport

The Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Project (AMAP) pointed out that OPEs can be transported from source areas to the Arctic through ocean currents due to their high solubility and strong persistence in water [85]. Chlorinated OPEs, in particular, have characteristics of persistence, low volatility, and high solubility, making them effective candidates for transport to polar regions via ocean currents [58,86]. The simulation results of the gas-particle distribution model showed that OPEs tend to be enriched in water, and the half-life of chlorinated OPEs in water was predicted to be between 121 and 212.5 days, indicating that water is an important medium for the long-distance transport of OPEs [87,88]. Measurements of OPEs in surface seawater from the northwest Pacific to the Arctic Ocean indicate that TCEP, TCIPP, TIBP, and TPhP are predominantly distributed in the dissolved phase, whereas TBOEP, TEHP, and TCrP are mainly associated with particles [83]. Dissolved OPEs generally travel farther than granular-phase OPEs, which is consistent with the higher concentrations of TCEP and TCIPP detected in polar regions [27]. OPEs carried by ocean currents have become an important source of Antarctic snow and ice. A study on OPE records in surface snow from the interior of East Antarctica found that sea salt aerosol splash from the surrounding seas, transported through the atmosphere, is an important source of OPEs in the region [64]. Furthermore, marine plastics, which make up 40–80% of the total floating garbage in the ocean, are also a key vector for OPE transport [89]. Marine microplastics are carried by ocean currents to waters surrounding Antarctica and eventually deposited on the Antarctic ice sheet through aerosol activity.

4.3. Local Emissions

In the extremely dry and cold environment, materials, instruments, and electronic equipment used in buildings such as scientific research stations and airports may contain large amounts of OPEs, making them an important local emission source [59,63]. Measurements of indoor and outdoor gas-phase OPEs at multiple Arctic scientific research stations revealed that OPE concentrations in indoor air were 2–350 times higher than those outdoors [35]. Additionally, large quantities of enriched OPEs are detected in rivers and sediments around scientific research stations, directly linked to local human activities [85]. With global warming, the reduction in sea ice is expected to increase human activities such as shipping, fishing, and tourism in the Arctic, which will further amplify the contribution of local sources of OPEs. In recent years, the development of Antarctic resources has led to a significant increase in tourism (over 50 times since 1987), resulting in a corresponding increase in pollutant emissions, including OPEs [35]. The aging and wear of equipment at Antarctic research stations are also significant emission sources [18]. Furthermore, climate change is exacerbating the melting of polar ice caps, contributing to secondary emissions of OPEs from polar snow and ice, which is an increasingly important source of contamination in these regions.

5. Research Prospects

The widespread use of OPEs in recent decades has resulted in their extensive detection across cold environmental media, particularly in ice sheets, which serve as reservoirs of atmospheric pollutants. Given the context of global warming, the melting and re-volatilization of glaciers will release OPEs, potentially posing significant risks to downstream ecosystems. Building upon current research, the author suggests the following key areas for further exploration regarding OPEs in snow and ice:
(1)
Geochemical Cycle of OPEs in Snow and Ice Under Climate Change and Human Activity. Due to the challenges of glacier sampling, research on OPEs in snow and ice primarily focuses on fundamental aspects such as concentration, sources, and distribution characteristics, particularly in high-altitude mountainous regions. However, there is still limited understanding of the environmental behaviors of OPEs in snow and ice, such as atmospheric deposition and post-deposition dynamics. Future research should focus on systematically investigating the storage, spatial distribution, and seasonal deposition patterns of OPEs in ice sheets. Additionally, studies should explore the air-particle distribution characteristics of OPEs during atmospheric transport and assess the process and mechanisms of atmospheric transmission. Snow pit samples could be valuable for understanding photochemical reactions of OPEs in cold and environments and clarifying post-deposition processes. Further, combining increasingly available OPEs data with multi-media fugacity models will help evaluate the environmental behavior of OPEs, including their occurrence, migration, and fate in cold regions.
(2)
Impact of OPE Release from Snow and Ice on Downstream Ecosystems. Snow and ice in the cryosphere serve as crucial enrichment zones for OPEs transported from lower latitudes via long-range atmospheric transport. These regions also act as secondary emission sources of OPEs, particularly under the influence of climate warming. However, the full impact of OPEs on the cryosphere ecosystem and human health remains unclear. Further research is needed to investigate the consequences of OPEs on ecosystems exposed to enriched environments, including during the snow and ice melting season. Specific attention should be given to the release of OPEs into meltwater and their subsequent enrichment in downstream rivers and lakes. Quantitative studies are needed to assess the risks posed by OPEs to downstream ecosystems and determine whether the accumulation of OPEs in these ecosystems could elevate toxicological risks.
(3)
Using Ice Core Records to Reconstruct Past Human Emissions of OPEs. Ice cores are invaluable for reconstructing historical atmospheric pollution emissions. However, the analysis of OPEs in ice cores is complicated by the need for sample pre-enrichment, which hinders progress. So far, studies on historical changes in OPEs have been limited, with the Devon and Oxford ice cores in the Canadian high Arctic being among the few to have provided data on OPE concentration trends since 1980 [62]. There is a significant gap in research on ice core records of OPEs in Antarctica and in high-altitude mountain glaciers closer to anthropogenic emission sources. Future work should focus on utilizing polar and high-altitude mountain ice cores to reconstruct past OPE deposition trends and clarify the spatiotemporal characteristics of OPEs emitted by human activities. Additionally, improving our understanding of the photochemical behavior of OPEs in snow and ice will enhance the interpretation of ice core data on OPE deposition.

Funding

This research was funded by the Natural Science Foundation of China, grant number 42301137 and Natural Science Research of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions of China, grant number 23KJB170007.

Conflicts of Interest

The author declares no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. The distribution of OPEs in snow and ice in polar and low–middle latitudes at high altitudes.
Figure 1. The distribution of OPEs in snow and ice in polar and low–middle latitudes at high altitudes.
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Figure 2. Schematic diagram of environmental behavior of air pollutants in glacier system.
Figure 2. Schematic diagram of environmental behavior of air pollutants in glacier system.
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Figure 3. Record of annual sediment fluxes of OPEs in Devon ice core and Oxford ice core in Canadian high Arctic [62].
Figure 3. Record of annual sediment fluxes of OPEs in Devon ice core and Oxford ice core in Canadian high Arctic [62].
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Table 1. Physicochemical characteristics of major OPEs in the remote environment [18].
Table 1. Physicochemical characteristics of major OPEs in the remote environment [18].
CompoundAbbr.Solubility (mg L−1)Vapor Pressure (Pa)logKowlogKoaResidence Time
Gaseous Phase (d)Particulate Phase (d)
Tris (2-chloroethyl) phosphateTCEP8808.21.45.3--
Tris (1-chloro-2propyl) phosphateTCIPP5275 × 10−32.68.2--
Tris (1,3-dichloro-2propyl) phosphateTDCIPP1.53.8 × 10−53.61111–147.9–19
Trimethyl phosphateTMP3.00 × 10555−0.655.9--
Triethyl phosphateTEP1.1 × 104220.86.6--
Tripropyl phosphateTnPrP8303.011.96.4--
Tri-isopropyl phosphateTiPrP500182.16.4--
Tributyl phosphateTnBP2800.1548.2--
Tri-isobutyl phosphateTiBP161.73.67.5--
Tripentyl phosphateTPeP0.332.3 × 10−35.38.8--
Trihexyl phosphateTHP0.013.3 × 10−46.89.9--
Triphenyl phosphateTPhP1.91.5 × 10−34.68.55.2–6.03.4–8.5
Tris(2-butoxyethyl) phosphateTBOEP21.6 × 10−43.813-2.4–5.8
Tris(2-ethylhexyl) phosphateTEHP1.5 × 10−51.1 × 10−59.5153.5–5.62.7–6.6
2-ethylhexyl diphenyl phosphateEHDPP0.0664.4 × 10−35.78.4-6.5–16
Tricresyl phosphateTCrP0.211.65.19.6-2.6–6.5
Di-n-octylphenyl phosphateDOPP4.2 × 10−49.88 × 10−68.0412--
Methyl diphenyl phosphateMDPP621.55 × 10−32.938.8--
Table 2. Distribution characteristics of OPE concentration (ng L−1) in snow and ice in polar and low–middle latitudes at high altitudes.
Table 2. Distribution characteristics of OPE concentration (ng L−1) in snow and ice in polar and low–middle latitudes at high altitudes.
RegionAntarcticaArcticHigh-Altitude Glaciers
LocationDome CEast Antarctic aShip Route bHailou Gou GlacierLaohugou GlacierTianshan No. 1 Glacier
Sample TypeSurface Snow
Samples71206588
TBEP---193. 7--
TCEP1.130.701.2927.8048.464.39
TCIPP8.16-3.8928.0025.9596.25
TDCIPP0.32-0.0124.208.554.55
TEP0.96---3.494.61
TnBP1.23-0.6326.701.806.60
TiBP-----3.97
TPeP0.19----2.66
TEHP0.18-0.0111.00-1.85
TPhP0.44-0.0197.707.854.54
TPrP0.03---3.741.70
ΣOPEs12.610.705.84408.4099.84131.25
References[63][64][61][65][66][67]
a Profile from Zhongshan Station to Kunlun Station, Antarctica. b ARK-XXVIII/2 expedition route: Germany–Svalbard–Greenland–Norway.
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Zou, X. A Review of the Properties, Transport, and Fate of Organophosphate Esters in Polar Snow and Ice. Sustainability 2025, 17, 2493. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17062493

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Zou X. A Review of the Properties, Transport, and Fate of Organophosphate Esters in Polar Snow and Ice. Sustainability. 2025; 17(6):2493. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17062493

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Zou, Xiang. 2025. "A Review of the Properties, Transport, and Fate of Organophosphate Esters in Polar Snow and Ice" Sustainability 17, no. 6: 2493. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17062493

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Zou, X. (2025). A Review of the Properties, Transport, and Fate of Organophosphate Esters in Polar Snow and Ice. Sustainability, 17(6), 2493. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17062493

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