Optimisation Strategies and Technological Advancements for Sustainable Direct Reduction Iron Production—A Systematic Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Review Methodology
- Categorise the different optimisation strategies capable of enhancing the sustainability of the DRI process.
- Establish new technologies used to enhance the sustainability of DRI.
- Establish economic implications of sustaining the DRI process.
Sustainability Indicators for the DRI Process
3. Qualitative Findings
3.1. Comparison of Various Reductants Used in Various Optimisation Strategies
3.2. Thematic Analysis of the Strategies
3.2.1. Modelling Techniques as a Strategy
3.2.2. Technological Innovations for Sustainability Enhancement of DRI
3.2.3. Life Cycle Assessment
3.3. The Economic Impact of Adopting Sustainable Approaches for DRI Production
Challenges with Adopting Hydrogen DRI
4. Proposed Approach to Enhance the Sustainability of DRI
- Reduce
- Reuse
- Recycling
- Recover
- Reclaim
Contribution of the Research
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
C | Carbon |
CE | Circular Economy |
CO | Carbon monoxide |
CO2 | Carbon dioxide |
DRI | Direct reduction iron |
Fe | Iron |
FIT | Flash iron technology |
GHG | Greenhouse gas |
H2 | Hydrogen |
H-DR | Hydrogen direct reduction |
Kg | Kilogram |
LCA | Life cycle assessment |
MWH | Megawatts hour |
PRISMA | Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews |
SDG | Sustainable Development Goals |
USA | United States of America |
UK | United Kingdom |
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Approach | Problem Addressed | Reductant Type | Country/Region | Year Published |
---|---|---|---|---|
Simulation models | ||||
Simulation of direct reduction moving-bed reactor [33] | Mass and energy balance within the reactor | Natural gas | Iran | 2018 |
Computer-aided optimisation to reduce carbon footprint [44] | Emission reduction | Natural gas | France | 2020 |
Fuzzy Logic System for accretion prevention [45] | Waste reduction | Coal-based | South Africa | 2013 |
CFD simulation of two-phase gas-particle flow [46] | Optimisation of process parameters | Natural gas | Iran | 2017 |
Numerical simulation and parameter optimisation [47] | Mass and energy balance on the reduction rate | Coke oven gas | China | 2015 |
Accretion control in sponge iron production using Fuzzy Logic [5] | Process optimisation | Coal-based | Kenya | 2014 |
Neural network to optimise sponge iron production [48] | Optimisation of process parameters | Coal-based | India | 2016 |
Simulation of impacts of mechanical pellets on iron reduction [36] | Process optimisation | Natural gas | Brazil | 2023 |
Artificial Neural Network to predict solid conversion process of DRI [25] | Process optimisation | Natural gas | Iran | 2022 |
Productivity increment of coal-based sponge iron using simulation [49] | Waste reduction | Coal-based | India | 2016 |
Modelling and simulation of the Midrex shaft furnace [33] | Mass and energy balance within the shaft furnace | Natural gas | Canada | 2015 |
Simulation of direct reduction reactor [50] | Process optimisation | Natural gas | Iran | 2011 |
Numerical simulation to optimise reduction temperature of HR [51] | Mass and energy balances in the shaft furnace | Hydrogen gas | China | 2023 |
Mathematical models | ||||
Mathematical model and expert system to optimise reduction [52] | Control and optimisation of process parameters | Coal-based | China | 2012 |
Computational fluid dynamic analysis of sponge iron rotary kiln [53] | Optimisation of process parameters | Coal-based | India | 2017 |
Modelling 2D model for direct reduction shaft furnace [3] | Emission reduction | Natural gas | France | 2018 |
Modelling and optimisation of rotary kiln DRI using the FORTRAN model [54] | Process optimisation | Coal-based | South Africa | 2015 |
Analysis of temperature profile and % metallization in rotary kin [55] | Optimisation of process parameters | Coal-based | India | 2017 |
Mathematical model to estimate parameters and efficiency of RHF [35] | Thermal efficiency | Coal-based | India | 2014 |
Mathematical analysis of parameters affecting the reduction of iron ore [28] | Efficiency of the reduction process | Natural gas | Egypt | 2015 |
Modelling of counter-current moving-bed reactor for DRI [32] | Mass energy balance within the shaft furnace | Natural gas | Argentina | 2004 |
Modelling kinetics of iron oxide reduction using CO [29] | Effect of residence time on the reduction rate | Natural gas | India | 2022 |
Modelling a new low-emission hydrogen DRI process using a 2D model [38] | CO2 emission reduction | Hydrogen gas | France | 2012 |
Mathematical modelling of sponge iron DRI [30] | Energy efficiency, CO2 emission reduction | Coal-based | India | 2010 |
Modelling and environmental economic analysis of DRI with different gases [56] | Emission reduction by using different reducing gases | Coke oven gas and hydrogen | Italy | 2023 |
Online modelling of the Energiron Direct Reduction Shaft furnace [31] | Process optimisation | Natural gas | Italy | 2013 |
Modelling the complex iterations of the Midrex shaft furnace [57] | Mass and energy interactions. | Natural gas | Saudi Arabia | 2012 |
Multiscale process modelling of iron ore DRI using Aspen [58] | Process optimisation Emission reduction | Natural gas | France | 2018 |
Experimental models | ||||
Effect of iron ore coal pellets during reduction with hydrogen and CO [59] | Optimisation of process parameters | Hydrogen gas | China | 2016 |
Statistically designed experiments for hydrogen-based direct reduction iron [27] | CO2 emission reduction | Hydrogen gas | Brazil | 2022 |
The effect of water gas shift reaction and other parameters on DRI [40] | Reducing the production cost | Natural gas | USA | 2015 |
Kinetics of iron oxide reduction using CO, experiments, and modelling [29] | Optimisation of process parameters | Natural gas | India | 2022 |
Prediction of solid conversion process in DRI using machine learning [25] | Optimisation of process parameters | Natural gas | Iran | 2022 |
Reaction reactivity of low-grade iron ore biomass for sustainable process [60] | CO2 emission reduction | Biomass gas | Indonesia | 2022 |
Effects of preheating temperature and pellet size on reduction in DRI with biomass [61] | Improving the degree of metallization | Biomass gas | China | 2013 |
Process modelling of hydrogen DRI, varying process parameters [62] | Variability in energy consumption | Hydrogen gas | Australia | 2024 |
Effects of metallization degree on CO2 emission yield [63] | Productivity and emission reduction | Coke oven gas | China | 2024 |
Solar-aided DRI using hydrogen as a reductant [64] | Low-CO2 alternatives | Hydrogen gas | France | 2024 |
Using molten carbonate fuel cells to reduce energy consumption [65] | Energy efficiency and emission reduction | Natural gas | Italy | 2024 |
Biomass Reductant | ||||
Utilisation potential of biomass volatiles and biochar as reducing agents for DRI [66] | Emission reduction | Biomass gas | India | 2024 |
Biomass reducing agent utilisation in the RHF process in DRI [41] | Emission reduction | Biomass gas | China | 2015 |
Direct reduction of iron ore by biomass char [36] | Productivity and process optimisation | Biomass gas | China | 2013 |
Direct reduction of oxidized iron ore pellets using biomass syngas as a reducer [26] | CO2 emission reduction | Biomass gas | China | 2016 |
Reduction behaviour of iron ore pellets using hardwood biomasses as reductants [67] | Process optimisation with alternative reductants | Biomass gas | Germany | 2022 |
Using biomass as a reductant of DRI in the RHF [68] | Emission reduction, optimisation of process parameters | Biomass gas | China | 2017 |
Synergetic conversion laws of biomass and iron ore for DRI and syngas coproduction [69] | Productivity, emission reduction | Biomass gas | China | 2022 |
Hydrogen Reductants | ||||
Decarbonisation of the DRI process using green hydrogen [8] | Emission reduction | Hydrogen gas | Norway | 2020 |
Hybrid hydrogen-based reduction of iron ore processes [42] | Emission reduction | Hydrogen gas | Germany | 2022 |
Design and cost analysis of hydrogen-based DRI [70] | Optimising the operational cost of hydrogen reduction | Hydrogen gas | USA | 2023 |
Hydrogen direct reduction; an overview of challenges and opportunities [14] | Feasibility of the hydrogen DRI process | Hydrogen gas | Germany | 2021 |
Direct reduction of iron ore with hydrogen [14] | Emission reduction, reducing energy consumption | Hydrogen gas | China | 2021 |
The perspective of hydrogen direct reduction of iron [71] | Emission reduction, process optimisation | Hydrogen gas | Australia | 2023 |
Transitioning to hydrogen-based reduction technologies | Emission reduction Challenges associated with hydrogen DRI | Hydrogen gas | Canada | 2023 |
Energy-Efficient Technologies | ||||
Energy conservation in sponge iron process through proper utilisation of waste heat [72] | Waste heat recovery | Coal-based | India | 2013 |
Energy survey for coal-based sponge iron industry [36] | Energy losses, increase in energy efficiency | Coal-based | India | 2015 |
Most efficient technologies for greenhouse emission Abatement [73] | Emission reduction, energy efficiency | Coke oven gas and natural gas | Switzerland | 2019 |
Techno-economic analysis of DRI through the integration of carbon capture and Storage technology [74] | Emission reduction | Natural gas | Korea | 2024 |
Economic analysis of the pressurised chemical looping system integrated with the Midrex process [75] | Energy efficiency and emission reduction | Natural gas | Canada | 2024 |
Decarbonization using chemical looping technology and biomass [76] | The need for low-cost syngas | Biomass gas | Japan | 2024 |
Life Cycle Assessments | ||||
Comparative life cycle assessment of natural gas and coal-based DRI [43] | Emission reduction throughout the life cycle | Coke oven gas and natural gas | India | 2022 |
Cost and life cycle analysis for CO2 reduction in DRI technologies [42] | Emission reduction throughout the life cycle | Natural gas and hydrogen | USA | 2023 |
Life cycle assessment of biosyngas-based DRI production process [15] | Emission reduction | Biomass gas | Sweden | 2023 |
Life cycle assessment for sponge iron production process [37] | Reducing energy consumption | Natural gas | Iran | 2023 |
Life cycle assessment of hydrogen DRI to reduce CO2 emissions [77] | Emission reduction | Hydrogen gas | China | 2024 |
Prospective LCA approach for decarbonization options in the UK [78] | Emission reduction | Natural gas | UK | 2025 |
Problems Addressed | Total | |||||||
Emission reduction | 1 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 1 | 5 | 19 |
Process optimisation | 6 | 7 | 4 | 1 | 18 | |||
Emission reduction and optimisation | 1 | 1 | 3 | 1 | 6 | |||
Energy efficiency | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 7 | ||
Economic feasibility | 1 | 2 | 1 | 4 | ||||
Mass and energy balances | 4 | 2 | 6 | |||||
Energy efficiency and emission reduction | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 5 | |||
Total | 13 | 15 | 11 | 7 | 7 | 6 | 6 | 65 |
Strategy | Simulation models | Mathematical models | Experimental models | Biomass technology | Hydrogen technology | Energy-efficient tech | Life cycle assessment |
for | Methane Steam Reforming | Coal Gasification | Membrane Electrolysis | Biomass Gasification | Methanol Steam Reforming |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cost (USD/kg H2) | 1.25 | 1.5 | 7.7 | 3 | 1.8–2.2 |
GHG emission (kg CO2/kg H2) | 8.1–11 | 13–17 | 0 | +/−0 | <7 |
H2 yield % | 70–85 | 50–60 | 70 | 20–40 | <90 |
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Nyakudya Ncube, R.Y.; Ayomoh, M. Optimisation Strategies and Technological Advancements for Sustainable Direct Reduction Iron Production—A Systematic Review. Sustainability 2025, 17, 2266. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17052266
Nyakudya Ncube RY, Ayomoh M. Optimisation Strategies and Technological Advancements for Sustainable Direct Reduction Iron Production—A Systematic Review. Sustainability. 2025; 17(5):2266. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17052266
Chicago/Turabian StyleNyakudya Ncube, Ratidzo Yvonne, and Michael Ayomoh. 2025. "Optimisation Strategies and Technological Advancements for Sustainable Direct Reduction Iron Production—A Systematic Review" Sustainability 17, no. 5: 2266. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17052266
APA StyleNyakudya Ncube, R. Y., & Ayomoh, M. (2025). Optimisation Strategies and Technological Advancements for Sustainable Direct Reduction Iron Production—A Systematic Review. Sustainability, 17(5), 2266. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17052266