Opportunities and Challenges for Green Mining on the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau: A Case-Based SWOT Analysis

Abstract

In the context of global sustainable development, the construction of green mining facilities has emerged as a pivotal strategy for advancing sustainable mining practices. As a substantial mineral resource base in China, the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau (QXP) is of significant concern due to its importance for mineral exploitation. However, the natural conditions of the region, such as freezing temperatures, low oxygen levels, frequent freeze–thaw cycles, and fragile ecology, pose substantial challenges to mining activities, making green mine construction an inevitable choice for mining development on the QXP. This study uses SWOT analysis to macroscopically evaluate the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats of green mine construction on the QXP. This study adopts SWOT analysis to sort out, from a macro and systematic perspective, the internal resource endowments, technical reserves, external policy and market opportunities, as well as multiple challenges such as ecological vulnerability, harsh climate, regulation, and public opinion in the construction of green mining on the QXP. Furthermore, four typical cases, namely the Julong Copper Mine, Zhaxikang Lead–Zinc Mine, Zaozigou Gold Mine, and Duolong Copper Mine, are selected for analysis, and their differentiated paths in ecological restoration, digital mines, tailings disposal, and community-benefit sharing are summarized. International comparisons reveal the similarities and differences in policies, technologies, and other aspects between the QXP and other high-altitude regions. The study holds that it is necessary to promote the coordinated development of resource exploitation and ecological protection in green mining on the QXP through technological innovation, policy optimization, community collaboration, and the construction of a full-life-cycle environmental-monitoring system. At the same time, it points out the limitations of the current research in quantitative analysis and future research directions.

1. Introduction

As an important material basis for national economic development, mineral resources play a key role in the global economy and industrialization. China is one of the world’s largest mineral resource producers and consumers. The Qinghai-Xizang Plateau in southwest China is rich in mineral resources. It holds irreplaceable significance for China’s resource security and regional economic prosperity [1,2,3,4]. However, mining on the QXP faces enormous challenges due to the high altitude, low oxygen, cold climatic conditions, and fragile ecosystem of the region [5,6,7,8]. Hence, the exploitation of mineral resources on the QXP needs to strongly emphasize sustainable development of the ecological environment.

With the introduction of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) globally, particularly the 17 goals set forth by the United Nations, the traditional model of mineral resource development is no longer compatible with the demands of the evolving era. Sustainable development has thus emerged as an inevitable trend in the mining industry [9,10,11,12,13,14,15]. Green mining is a model of mine construction centered on sustainability and the harmonious integration of resources, the environment, and socio-economic benefits. It has been argued that this represents a critical pathway for sustainable development in the mining sector [16,17,18,19]. Green mining is a mode of mine construction. It runs through the entire process of mineral resource development. This mode employs measures such as scientific planning, environmentally friendly technologies, and ecological restoration. It aims to achieve efficient resource utilization. Meanwhile, it minimizes ecological disturbance and realizes standardized enterprise management and harmonious community relations [16,18,19,20,21,22]. Green mining is an important path to ensuring resource development, maintaining ecological integrity, and achieving high-quality sustainable economic growth. It encompasses not only sustainable mineral extraction, such as adherence to international green mining standards (ISO 14001, ICMM principles), but also the long-term sustainability of ecosystems and the continued development of regional economies [21]. It represents China’s phased, practical pathway and operational model for implementing the concept of sustainable mining. In high-altitude cold regions, green mining is more distinctive and challenging. Mineral development in these regions is prone to causing ecological problems such as permafrost degradation and vegetation destruction, while the difficulty and cost of ecological restoration are also much higher than those in low-altitude areas.

A substantial proportion of extant research has been focused on the evaluation of systems, digital models, bibliometric methods, specific restoration and geotechnical engineering practices in green mine construction [18,19,23]. A paucity of research has been identified that analyzes issues in green mine construction from a macro, holistic perspective, and the development of green mining in key areas, and proposes corresponding countermeasures. SWOT analysis integrates self-development with internal resources and the external environment. It comprehensively assesses both internal factors (strengths and weaknesses) and external factors (opportunities and threats) of the subject under study. This approach supports the formulation of scientific development models and strategies [5,24,25,26]. Initially used to evaluate enterprise development models and competitiveness, its application scope has gradually expanded. Now widely adopted in mining strategic decision-making, it features comprehensive information coverage. It is well-suited for research scenarios that target the comprehensive formulation of development models. It can provide theoretical support for the realization of the goal of sustainable ecological development of mines through systematic analysis [27].

This method has been widely used in mining decision-making, incorporating more comprehensive information, and is suitable for research to formulate comprehensive development models. Systematic analysis supports achieving sustainable development of mine ecology [11,27,28]. The construction of green mining on the QXP is subject to both complex internal resource endowments and external environmental-policy constraints. In such circumstances, the SWOT method is an effective means of identifying the coupling relationships among multi-dimensional factors, thereby providing a systematic framework for formulating differentiated strategies.

This study employs the SWOT methodology to analyze the opportunities and challenges of green mine construction on the QXP from a macro and holistic perspective. By examining typical cases of green mine construction, this research explores the issues encountered in the construction process and engages in international comparative discussions (Figure 1). This study aims to support the construction of green mining on the QXP, as well as to benefit the region’s economy and protect the environment.

2. SWOT Analysis

A SWOT analysis of the sustainable development and construction of mines on the QXP is a complex and meticulous task involving a comprehensive evaluation of mine construction in the region. A comprehensive and methodical examination of the merits and demerits, prospects, and challenges inherent in green mine construction on the QXP is imperative if a thorough and well-organized understanding of the prevailing developmental circumstances is to be obtained. This analysis has the potential to generate strategies for sustainable development processes on the QXP, thereby providing scientific guidance for the sustainable development of mines in the region. It ensures the rational development and utilization of resources while protecting the ecological environment.

This study collated a substantial amount of data and information to construct a SWOT framework for the development of green mining on the QXP (Figure 2). Internal factors were sourced from multiple channels, including company annual reports, interviews with government, business, and community representatives, and on-site investigations. The external factors were sourced from policy documents, remote sensing data, and relevant industry reports. A comparison with green mines in other regions should be made in order to screen and classify them, with expert opinions being referenced [8,9,10]. The verification of internal factors is achieved through on-site inspections of case study mines, while external factors are verified through multi-dimensional cross-comparisons of relevant documents, ESG frameworks, and ICMM principles related to the QXP (

Table 1. SWOT analysis regarding the development of sustainable mines on the QXP.

Strengths	Weaknesses
Abundant mineral resources: copper, lead–zinc, iron, and other resources hold significant positions nationwide Large reserves of mineral resources High potential for mineral resource development Employment of advanced technologies and equipment, such as advanced backfilling technologies and underground water treatment plants Ecological restoration techniques, including terrain reshaping, soil reconstruction, vegetation recovery, and other advanced ecological restoration technologies and solutions Implementation of a new environmental protection strategy “prevention-oriented, combining prevention and control, full-process control, and comprehensive management.” Land reclamation, afforestation projects, and geological disaster management Provision of employment opportunities and support for local community development through forms such as equity earnings, labor outsourcing, and industrial support Significant achievements in the construction of ecological civilization	Fragile and sensitive ecological environment Harsh climatic conditions of cold and aridity, with high altitude Difficult vegetation growth and poor resilience Challenges in ecological restoration and land reclamation Issues of soil erosion and desertification Insufficient infrastructure, such as roads and water supply Climate adaptation and freeze–thaw damage issues Inadequate technological reserves for ecological restoration in cold and high-altitude mining areas High costs for ecological restoration and maintenance Monitoring and prevention of geological disasters Unfavorable geographical locations of some resources
Opportunities	Threats
National policy support and tax incentives National mineral resource security Global demand for green mining products Development of banking and financial institutions’ green mine-specific credit products tailored to local realities Increasing societal emphasis on ecological and environmental protection Research, innovation, and application of technologies required for green mine construction Intelligent factories and digital mines Green mine construction promotes high-quality regional economic development Balance between ecological protection and economic development International scientific research cooperation and exchange Development of intelligent mine systems and digital management	Ecological protection laws and regulations should prioritize ecological protection and be strictly enforced Deficiencies in laws regarding green mining and ecological restoration governance, with unclear standards and supervision Public skepticism and resistance towards green mine construction Climate warming leads to increased freeze–thaw cycles, resulting in slope instability, debris flows, and enhanced thermokarst The challenge of global climate change to ecosystem stability Artificial protective forests have degraded and are highly susceptible to diseases Enhanced public awareness of the protection of fragile plateau ecosystems High market entry barriers and competition Competitive pressures by international cooperation

).

2.1. Strengths

The QXP is a significant mineral resource base in China, spanning the Paleo-Asian and Tethyan-Himalayan metallogenic domains [1,2,29]. Its potential for development is immense, offering a promising future. As a vital source of mineral resources in China, it holds significant positions nationwide with its copper, gold, antimony, lead–zinc, lithium, and other resources. The development of mineral deposits on the QXP can compensate for the insufficiency of domestic mineral resource supply and is an essential safeguard for national resource security [30,31].

The issue of ecological restoration during the mining process is crucial to the mining industry in this region [32,33,34]. In recent years, novel environmental protection strategies have been introduced, emphasizing enhancing the effectiveness of green mine construction. Measures for the governance of ecological disasters have been implemented, leading to significant improvements in the ecological environment of mining areas. The implementation of advanced restoration technologies and solutions has been demonstrated to aid in restoring the ecological functioning of mining areas and enhance biodiversity, offering hope for the future of the region’s ecological balance. Furthermore, it has been shown to contribute to the long-term sustainable development of the ecological environment system. Significant achievements have been made in constructing ecological civilization on the QXP, with stable and good environmental quality, steady development of green industries, the essential establishment of a technological support system, and the gradual formation of ecological culture.

The development of mines on the QXP demands high standards for technology and equipment. Mainly, through research, innovation, and the application of modern mining technologies, resource recycling and pollution reduction have been achieved, exerting a positive influence on green mine construction. Concurrently, mine construction in the QXP region emphasizes technological innovation and exemplary leadership, which are conducive to establishing a modern environmental governance system and providing technological support for constructing ecological civilization on the plateau.

Green mine construction focuses on developing mineral resources and actively fulfilling social responsibilities. A series of measures are implemented to allow residents to share in the benefits of mining development, engage in business cooperation with local governments and communities, and support infrastructure and education, thereby facilitating the coordinated unification of regional economic benefits and ecological development. Green mining is exploring a path of green mining development that is compatible, organically integrated, and mutually reinforcing between mining development and environmental protection.

2.2. Weaknesses

In recent years, significant progress has been made in the exploration and development of mineral resources on the QXP and in green mine construction. Nevertheless, the sustainable development of mineral resources on the QXP remains encumbered by numerous issues and challenges.

The exploitation of mineral resources inevitably causes disturbance to the original ecological environment [32]. Climatic conditions serve as the predominant limiting factor in restoring the QXP ecosystem, underscoring the critical need for adopting systematic approaches. These include the selection of vegetation with enhanced resistance to cold and drought and the establishment of semi-natural plant communities to improve the efficacy and quality of ecological restoration efforts. The destruction of vegetation ecology has emerged as the most pressing and complex challenge in ecosystem rehabilitation and management [32,33]. However, the current technological reserves for mine area ecological restoration are severely insufficient for supporting green mine construction on the QXP. The ecological restoration and reconstruction of mines mainly rely on introducing ecological restoration technologies from lower altitudes, which are difficult to adapt to the harsh environment and climate of high-altitude, cold, and mountainous mining areas, resulting in high restoration costs and poor restoration effects.

In addition to the fragile ecological environment, the QXP is characterized by complex topography, inconvenient transportation, and scarcity of water and soil resources. Not only is a substantial amount of infrastructure required, but equipment and instruments suitable for the plateau environment are also necessary, as existing devices and instruments are inadequate to meet the demands. Particularly in high-altitude mountainous mining areas, severe soil erosion and freeze–thaw erosion directly impact ecological restoration and land reclamation efforts [33,34,35]. The degradation of permafrost due to climate change threatens infrastructure safety, leading to increased maintenance costs and reduced service life. It requires innovation in mining technologies and production systems, associated with high research and development costs.

Based on the conditions of infrastructure development, ecological restoration, and the development of environmental protection technologies, the initial capital investment for green mine construction in the QXP is often higher than in other areas, resulting in a relatively high barrier to entry. In addition, existing mines require additional funding for technological renovation and upgrading to meet the requirements of green mine standards.

2.3. Opportunities

The national government has prioritized ecological protection and green mine construction on the QXP. A series of national policies emphasize the comprehensive advancement of green mine construction, accelerating the green and low-carbon transformation of the mining industry, and achieving the goals of carbon peak and carbon neutrality [36,37]. Policy support and tax incentives positively impact green mine construction.

The global demand for sustainable development and green mining products is also increasing, encouraging financial institutions to support green mining. At the same time, there is a push to list green mine enterprises that meet the criteria [38]. The societal emphasis on ecological protection provides strong social support for green mine construction on the QXP, which is conducive to building a brand image. Green mine construction balances local mineral resource development and ecological protection while promoting rural revitalization and economic development, gaining social support. Green mine construction is beneficial for achieving better market recognition and social support.

Technological progress provides solutions for ecological mine restoration and constructing intelligent and digital mines [39,40,41]. New technologies and solutions are continually being developed and applied in green mine construction. The China National Gold Group Corporation has achieved significant results in large-scale green mining technology and application in high-altitude and cold regions for underground metal mines. The construction of digital mines and intelligent factories is conducive to innovating mining management models and achieving automation, intelligence, digitalization, and scientification.

2.4. Threats

Ecological and legal regulations are stringent, yet the supervisory standards for green mine construction are not clearly defined, leading to numerous issues during the specific construction process of green mines. Mining development may lead to environmental pollution and ecological destruction, affecting residents’ health and quality of life. Residents may develop a sense of distrust due to a lack of understanding of the project’s impacts, potentially leading to misunderstanding and resistance.

Concurrently, the construction of mines and the pursuit of ecological sustainability face numerous difficulties and challenges. Climate change has accelerated the thawing of glaciers and permafrost, which not only affects the safe operation of infrastructure but also poses a threat to the QXP ecosystem, requiring the continued implementation of proactive conservation measures. Moreover, the scarcity of biodiversity and the urgent need to enhance the stability of artificial protective forest ecosystems in some areas must be incorporated into long-term planning.

In addition to market competition, the domestic mining industry is also influenced by environmental policies. The strict environmental protection policies on the QXP have prompted an increase in domestic mining companies pursuing green mine construction. Existing green mining companies have created a particular technological barrier through technological innovation and brand building, thus increasing the competitive pressure.

3. Typical Cases

The number of currently operational mines in the QXP region is relatively limited. The focus of development efforts is predominantly oriented towards copper–gold mines, large-scale lead–zinc mines, and associated metal ore deposits. Consequently, the present study has opted to select copper, gold, and lead–zinc mines in the region that are either in operation or under construction as the typical case studies. Based on the SWOT analysis, this study has selected four representative typical mines for case analysis: the Julong Copper Mine, Zhaxikang Lead–Zinc Mine, Zaozigou Gold Mine, and Duolong Copper Mine. The Julong Copper Mine and Zaozigou Gold Mine have already achieved preliminary success in constructing green mines, while the Zhaxikang Lead–Zinc Mine and Duolong Copper Mine are actively working to become green mines. These mines are not only prevalent in mineral resource development on the QXP but also exhibit characteristic features in terms of development models, technological applications, and ecological impacts. Consequently, they reflect the overall features and general status of mine development in the region.

3.1. Julong Copper Mine

The Julong Copper Mine is a world-class super-large porphyry copper–molybdenum deposit under construction as a green mine (Figure 3), with extensive innovation and experimentation in ecological restoration plans and technologies (

Table 2. Status of green mine construction at Julong Copper Mine.

	Description	Detailed Information
Ecological restoration	Ecological restoration techniques Ecological restoration Grassland protection and recovery Vegetation recovery and greening plans Waste land management	First-time use of techniques such as vegetation bags and mats to overcome the issue of infertile native soil By September 2021, 1.72 million square meters of ecological restoration Soil and turf preserved elsewhere before construction and returned afterward Adoption of a “tiered greening” model for recovery Ecological restoration of high and steep slopes
Financial investment	Investment in ecological restoration Investment in facility construction	From June 2020 to September 2021, a cumulative investment of USD 11.65 million Over USD 13.93 million invested in constructing a water treatment system
Environmental protection and impacts	Heavy metal distribution survey Treatment of acidic river water	Comprehensive investigation and analysis of the relationship between surface heavy metals and watershed systems Establishment of a water treatment system to reduce the impact of heavy metal release on the ecosystem.
Mining technology methods	Open-pit mining Green mining in mines	Suitable for open-pit mining, with high production efficiency and safe processes Adherence to the principle of “developing, protecting, and managing simultaneously”

). Located in Mozhugongka County, Lhasa City, Xizang Province, and belonging to the eastern section of the Gangdese metallogenic belt, the mine holds a copper resource of 25.88 million tons with an average grade of 0.31% [42]. It is the most significant registered copper resource volume in China currently. The mine also holds an inferred copper resource of above 25 million tons at an average grade of 0.31%, making it China’s largest inferred copper mine today [42].

The Julong Copper Mine is committed to achieving comprehensive greening of the mining area, adhering to the principle of simultaneous development, protection, and management, and formulating targeted ecological restoration plans and technologies. The ecological restoration of the mining area has achieved a greening pattern of continuous coverage below 5000 m in altitude and bead-string effect above 5000 m. The comprehensive greening of the mining area is expected to be completed by 2025. This realization will mark a path of green mining development that is compatible, organically integrated, and mutually reinforcing between mineral development and environmental protection [43].

3.2. Zhaxikang Lead–Zinc Polymetallic Deposit

The Zhaxikang Lead–Zinc Mine is a high-grade polymetallic deposit committed to technological innovation and the construction of a digital mine. Significantly, it has spearheaded the development of a facility for treating water from mine tunnels and a mine filling station employing concentrate tailings for backfilling, marking unprecedented advancements within Xizang province. These innovations are collectively referred to as the first batch of six major systems of mines (

Table 3. Status of green mine construction at Zhaxikang Lead–Zinc Mine.

	Description	Detailed Information
Ecological restoration	Land reclamation Ecological environment improvement	Reclamation and greening area: 4.8668 hectares, waste rock dump reclamation area: 7.495 hectares Improvement to the mine’s ecological environment, increase in vegetation area
Environmental protection and impacts	New environmental protection strategy Wastewater treatment Geological disaster management Tailings sand filling station	Implementation of the new environmental protection strategy of “prevention first, combination of prevention and control, full-process control, and comprehensive management” The mine water treatment system to meet national discharge standards unreclaimed areas from before expansion and reconstruction reach 100%, and the management rate of geological disasters reaches 60% Construction of a mineral processing tailings filling station.
Mining technology methods	Standardization of safety and quality Supervision and management mechanism	ISO environmental management standards Supervision and management mechanism for the protection of the ecological mine environment
Social and economic benefits	Employment and poverty alleviation Tax contribution	Employment for more than 300 local farmers In the past three years, a total of USD 74.52 million in taxes have been paid, accounting for more than 70% of the total tax revenue of Longzi County.

).

Located due west of Longzi County, Xizang province, the deposit is located in the high mountainous region on the northern slope of the Himalayas, belonging to the east-central part of the Himalayan Tethyan orogenic belt. The deposit contains abundant lead, zinc, antimony, and silver resources, among other polymetals. Specifically, it contains above 620 thousand tons of lead and zinc. The ore bodies have high average grades, which helps to increase the economic benefits of mining [44].

In mining operations, a novel environmental protection strategy has been implemented, focusing on the comprehensive enhancement of the ecological environment within the mining area. This strategy facilitates a symbiotic progression between mineral exploitation and ecological conservation. The company has continually improved the ecological environment of the mine through reclamation and greening, leading to a more sustainable ecosystem. The active application of environmental protection technologies, facilities, and management systems has enabled the recycling of resources, the reduction in environmental pollution, and the preliminary achievement of safety monitoring and digitalization.

The extraction and operation of this deposit, while pursuing economic benefits and ecological restoration, actively undertakes social responsibilities, enhances economic efficiency, and increases local employment rates. Furthermore, the deposit’s development is conducive to regional economic growth and the improvement of local living standards.

3.3. Zaozigou Gold Mine

The Zaozigou Gold Mine is one of the top ten gold mines in China in terms of economic benefits and is also one of the second batch of pilot green mines in China. As a large-scale vein gold mine, it has developed a world-first technology that combines deep cone thickeners with filter presses for the dry discharge and stacking of tailings (

Table 4. Status of green mine construction at Zaozigou Gold Mine.

	Description	Detailed Information
Ecological restoration	Land reclamation Greening area and vegetation recovery	Land reclamation rate reaches 95%, and the greening coverage rate reaches 94% In 2016, the greening area reached 12,000 square meters; trees were planted tree Adhering to the development concept of “developing a mine, leaving behind a green space”
Financial investment	Environmental protection development concept Water treatment and water quality improvement Tailings dam management Energy conservation and emissions reduction	An investment of USD 51,500 was made to establish a water treatment station, meeting the standards of Class II surface water An investment of USD 185,328 was made to complete the hidden danger management project of the tailings dam Air-source heat pumps
Environmental protection and impacts	Dry-stacking technology for tailings Upgraded transportation system Equipment and energy management system Standardization of safety and quality	The dry discharge and stacking of tailings are achieved through the use of deep cone thickeners combined with filter presses, a technology that is a world first Renovate the underground chute breaking system, the main shaft skip-hoisting system, the unloading system, and the belt transportation system The TOPS management system, adjusting peak and valley electricity usage to save USD 1.80 million and applying 4 new technologies, creating an economic benefit of USD 1.25 million Nearly USD 12.5 million has been invested in safety and environmental governance; ISO environmental management standard certification
Mining technology methods	Employment	More than 440 local employees

) [45].

The Zaozigou gold deposit is located southwest of Hezuo City, Gansu Province. It is a typical gold deposit associated with intermediate acidic vein rocks in the northwestern part of the West Qinling orogenic belt. A low mountainous topography characterizes the deposit and exhibits medium- to low-temperature hydrothermal mineralization features [45]. As of 2016, the Zaozigou Gold Mine has above 150 tons of gold resources with a grade of 3.42 g/t [46].

The consistent implementation of developmental philosophies has led to significant outcomes in the ecological restoration and management of the mine. Establishing a water treatment station has set a benchmark for domestic mine water treatment. Using advanced equipment and technologies has reduced pollution and energy consumption, enhancing production efficiency and quality of life. The mine is dedicated to safety and environmental governance, achieving coordinated and unified development between mining operations and environmental protection management.

The innovative tailings technology is being used for the first time anywhere in the world, improving production efficiency and life, and facilitating resource recycling. Optimization of the production process and management system increases production efficiency and reduces transportation costs and energy consumption. It achieves the optimal balance between output and benefits, realizing coordinated and unified development between mine development and ecological environmental protection (Figure 4) [47,48].

3.4. Duolong Copper Mine

The Duolong Copper Mine is a significant mineral district located at the western end of the Bangong–Nujiang metallogenic belt. Its proximity to the Changtang National Nature Reserve Experimental Zone makes it a unique case, requiring special attention to protecting wildlife and flora. The mining area’s development holds great significance for local economic growth and targeted poverty alleviation (

Table 5. Status of green mine construction at Duolong Copper Mine.

	Description	Detailed Information
Ecological restoration	Grassland protection and restoration Heavy metal pollution control	Soil and turf are preserved elsewhere Comprehensive investigation of surface heavy metals and the watershed system
Financial investment	Ecosystem conservation Treatment of acidic river water New environmental protection strategies	Protection of wildlife within the mining area The Rongna acidic river suffers from severe heavy metal pollution Implementation of the new environmental protection strategy
Environmental protection and impacts	Open-pit mining	Open-pit mining
Mining technology methods	Employment and poverty alleviation Economic benefits Infrastructure improvement	Relocation and provision of employment opportunities Based on recent market prices, the mining area can achieve a net profit of approximately USD 835.8 million, with tax payments amounting to several million dollars

).

The Duolong Copper Mine, located in the western segment of the Bangong–Nujiang metallogenic belt, stands out as a crucial mining area for copper and gold resources. It boasts significant and super-large deposits, including the Gelle and Duobuza deposits, across 12 mining sites. The district is home to about 20 million tons of copper resourcesand an associated gold resource of more than 400 tons [49,50,51,52].

Adhering to the concept of green mining is conducive to protecting ecosystems and wildlife. Comprehensive investigation and analysis facilitate reducing environmental impacts during the development of the ore deposit and ecological restoration after mine closure. Existing technologies and environmental protection measures can support green development, carry out ecological restoration, improve water quality, reduce destruction and pollution, and enhance the stability of the ecosystem [50,51].

The development of the Duolong Copper Mine is not just about meeting the demand for copper resources. It could address the financial challenges of the local area, thereby enhancing regional economic development and the standard of living for the people. The green development activities of the Duolong deposit can balance economic benefits and ecological protection, achieving coordinated and unified development. The geological environmental issues of the Duolong mining area are complex. The construction of a green mine requires significant investment, including infrastructure development and ecological restoration, which impose a significant financial burden on the Company.

Despite being at different stages of development, all four mines have integrated the “new environmental protection strategy” throughout the entire development process, prioritizing ecological restoration and wastewater treatment while balancing local economic development and employment (

Table 6. Typical mine comprehensive comparison table.

	Julong Copper Mine	Zhaxikang Lead–Zinc Mine	Zaozigou Gold Mine
Mine status	Operating, Phase II expansion underway	Operating	Operating
Significant features	Extensive innovation and experimentation in ecological restoration Adoption of a “tiered greening” model for recovery Successful ecological restoration of high and steep slopes	Technological innovation and the construction of a digital mine Tailings sand filling station Six major systems of mines	Deep cone thickeners with filter presses for the dry discharge and stacking of tailings TOPS management system
Financial investment	Water treatment system Investment in ecological restoration Investment in facility construction	Certification through the ISO environmental management standards	Water treatment and water quality improvement Tailings dam management Energy conservation and emission reduction
Similarities	Adoption of the new environmental-protection strategy Large-scale ecological restoration initiatives Wastewater treatment systems Economic efficiency, significant increases in local employment

). The present situation is such that the objective of achieving a state of synergy between green mine construction and regional development has been met in principle. The Julong Copper Mine has developed a competitive edge through the iteration of ecological restoration technologies and a “layered greening” model. The Zhaxikang Lead–Zinc Mine, conversely, leverages a digital mine framework and tailings sand cementation backfill system. Zaozigou Gold Mine relies on tailings dry-stacking technology and the TOPS management system to continuously strengthen water treatment and tailings dam safety management. Duolong Copper Mine drew systematically on the mature experiences of the aforementioned mines during the initial construction phase, thereby establishing the technical and institutional foundations for subsequent green development. The four mines have demonstrated new models of green mine development at different stages of development, providing replicable pathways for reference in mine development on the QXP.

4. Discussion

4.1. Opportunities and Challenges

The QXP is rich in mineral resources, crucial for economic development and resource security. In recent years, significant progress has been made in mineral resource exploration, with the discovery of several super-large and large deposits. However, the complex ore-forming patterns increase the development difficulty [1,4]. The development of green mining is gaining attention, which requires a balance between resource exploitation and ecological security. Technological innovation and talent development are key to enhancing mining efficiency and mitigating environmental impacts. However, there are also challenges in attracting and developing professional talents. Green mine construction requires coordination across all stages to minimize environmental impacts. Technological innovation and enhancing the quality of the environmental protection industry chain represent significant opportunities for achieving green production [53,54,55].

Information technology and interdisciplinary research promote industry–academia-research cooperation and technology development. Green mine construction in other regions of China is progressively integrating modern information technologies. Examples include drone monitoring and digital mine-management systems. It aims to enhance the efficiency of resource development and environmental management. Initial attempts are being made to utilize big data and cloud computing technologies for resource and environmental monitoring [54,56,57]. However, in green mine construction on the QXP, technological equipment must adapt to the unique ecological environment of the plateau. This requires adaptive modifications, as well as the development and application of new environmental protection technologies and methods. Examples include new combined reagents and new technologies for the mixed flotation of copper, lead, and molybdenum to process complex and difficult-to-select ores efficiently [58].

Green mine construction on the QXP is in its infancy, facing challenges posed by the high-altitude, unique environment, particularly the impacts of ecological fragility and freeze–thaw cycles. Therefore, technological innovation and application are key to promoting green mine construction. There should be a push for the development of information technology, interdisciplinary studies, and systems science to accelerate collaboration among universities, research institutes, enterprises, and demonstration trials. This includes developing and applying new technologies and methods adapted to the plateau environment, such as new environmental protection technologies and resource-efficient utilization technologies.

Ecological and environmental protection is a critical issue in green mine construction. Ecological and environmental protection is a critical issue that needs to be addressed and resolved in the construction of green mining. Green mine construction in other regions of China also faces environmental challenges. The eastern and central regions may focus more on industrial pollution and land reclamation, while western regions may be more concerned with water resource management and desertification prevention [59,60,61]. Green mine construction on the QXP requires particular attention to issues such as glacier retreat, permafrost thaw, lake expansion, and grassland degradation. In addition, the effects of climate change will have to be considered, making ecological and environmental protection more severe and challenging [62]. The green mines on the QXP have development potential. Enterprises need to invest more resources and money to meet the requirements of green mine construction, which may increase their financial burdens.

Public awareness and concern for the environment have increased in the context of low-carbon consumption. Mining enterprises are transitioning towards garden-style mines. And the restoration and transformation of abandoned mines are enhancing ecological value and social benefits [63,64]. The integration of national park construction with green mines aims to protect the ecology while providing ecological products, achieving a win–win situation for ecological protection and economic development [5,65]. Green mine construction is increasingly subject to social scrutiny and requires societal support.

Therefore, social responsibility and community development are integral to green mine construction. It is essential to enhance cooperation between mining enterprises and local communities, work together to construct green mining and green urbanization, and share the benefits of mining development. Local governments and enterprises need to explore new collaboration models with local communities. This will ensure mineral development brings economic benefits. It also protects and improves residents’ living environments. Enterprises must take the lead in ecological and environmental protection. They should prioritize environmental conservation. They need to adopt a green development model, starting with partial green development, to protect the majority of the ecosystem, which will promote the positive development of the surrounding ecological environment.

From the perspective of national economic development, the mining industry needs high-quality green development. It must ensure mineral exploitation co-develops with ecological and environmental protection. Thus, national policies support sustainable and green development. Multiple cities and enterprises participate in green mine construction, forming systematic construction models and exemplary practices. Environmental protection policies provide a legal framework for mining development. Local governments enact regulations and measures that must be consistent with national policies and effectively implemented. In practice, however, policy implementation, technological innovation, talent development, and ecological risk prevention in ecologically fragile areas all pose challenges to green mine construction [54,59]. Recent research shows ecological restoration costs in the QXP are 30–50% higher than in low-altitude mining areas. Freeze–thaw cycles increase maintenance expenses. For example, thermokarst landslides in the Duolong mining area require additional mitigation costs.

Therefore, it is necessary to strengthen technological innovation and the development of a circular economy, to adapt to the requirements of plateau environments, and achieve sustainable development of green mining, contributing to regional sustainable development [66]. The Zaozigou Gold Mine’s tailings dry-stacking technology reduced energy consumption by 17.8% while conserving land. Local governments must promote the vertical extension of the mining industry chain, develop downstream processing and manufacturing industries, increase the added value of mineral resources, and enhance the region’s economic autonomy [60]. At the same time, diversified industrial development should be encouraged to reduce dependence on a single mineral resource and improve the region’s economic risk resistance.

The development of green mining is highly congruent with the tenets of sustainable development. This inherent attribute secures sustained support from national policies. It also gains extensive societal endorsement. It could attract diverse investors. It provides financial safeguards for synergistic mining and ecological conservation [38]. It balances tax contributions and employment generation—such as Zhaxikang’s contribution of over 70% of Longzi County’s tax revenue—against ecosystem service losses. Concurrently, green mine construction could establish an interactive mechanism encompassing “efficient resource utilization—ecological environment amelioration—regional economic upgrading”. Julong’s terraced revegetation model, despite increasing short-term costs through higher EIIC, significantly enhances steep slope stability, potentially reducing long-term geohazard management expenses by millions of USD. It can effectively facilitate the cultivation and evolution of green industrial clusters in peripheral regions [67]. Building upon the enhancement of resource allocation efficiency, it markedly boosts the economic dynamism and income levels of surrounding areas, thus realizing a rational conversion of ecological benefits into economic gains.

Green mining achieves the organic integration of mining development, ecological protection, and economic benefits through the establishment of a systematic collaborative development model. In the development process, it centers on efficient resource extraction and recycling, which not only ensures the sustainable supply of mineral resources but also minimizes disturbance to the ecological environment through the use of advanced technologies. It incorporates ecological protection requirements into the entire process of mine planning, construction, and operation. It maintains regional ecosystem integrity through ecological restoration, pollution control, and other initiatives aimed at preserving the integrity of the local environment. This development model challenges the traditional notions that “development equals destruction” and “environmental protection equals cost.” Instead, by relying on policy support, technological innovation, and industrial linkage, it enhances economic benefits through resource appreciation and the expansion of green industries, while achieving ecological benefits. Ultimately, it forms a virtuous development pattern where the three aspects (development, environmental protection, and economic benefits) mutually promote and maintain dynamic balance.

4.2. International Comparison of High-Altitude Regions

Internationally, policies for high-altitude mine construction emphasize alignment with sustainable development frameworks, such as the ESG (environmental, social, and governance) philosophy, which focuses on environmental resilience and social performance [6,68,69]. Argentina promoted lithium mine development through diversified market strategies. At the same time, Western countries such as Australia and Canada protected the environment through legislation, demanding high standards for mining projects and ensuring ecological restoration and management [70,71]. For example, Australia’s Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act requires mining projects to meet high standards in environmental assessment and approval and ensures environmental protection and restoration through measures such as the “Mine Closure Fund” [72,73]. Western countries’ policies emphasize market mechanisms and corporate autonomy, highlighting the responsibilities and obligations of enterprises in environmental protection. Chile aims to have half its mining enterprises use renewable energy by 2030.

Technological innovation is critical to adapting to plateau environments and achieving sustainable development in green mining [18]. Internationally, advanced technologies and equipment are used to construct high-altitude mines, promoting green technologies and clean energy. For instance, Canada promotes clean energy technologies, while Australia delved into ecological restoration techniques for mining areas [74,75,76,77]. In Western countries, technological innovation is often closely integrated with environmental protection, achieving sustainable development in the mining industry through technological advancements. Cooperation and exchange with international organizations and other countries in green mine construction is essential. Participation in international sustainable development frameworks is necessary. Learning from advanced international policies and practices on green mining is also crucial. International cooperation and exchange can facilitate the sharing of knowledge and technology.

The QXP shares similarities with certain mining regions in countries such as Argentina, Canada, and Australia in that they are all located in high-altitude areas characterized by low temperatures and low oxygen levels. Additionally, these regions are situated along globally significant mineral belts, harbouring abundant reserves of critical mineral resources, which play a crucial role in supporting each country’s mineral resource development strategies. However, the QXP exhibits distinct natural environmental peculiarities. The region experiences greater diurnal temperature fluctuations, with ecosystems exhibiting heightened vulnerability. Although mining areas on the QXP and the aforementioned countries are both affected by permafrost and seasonal freeze–thaw phenomena, such geological conditions pose potential threats to slope stability and tailings dam safety. However, the freeze–thaw effects on the QXP, due to its unique combination of altitude and climate, result in more complex impact levels and greater challenges in management.

Ecological and environmental protection are paramount in the context of green mining. The QXP faces severe challenges, such as glacier retreat and permafrost thaw, necessitating responses to climate change’s impacts. Internationally, the construction of high-altitude mines places significant emphasis on legislation and regulation. For instance, Canada’s “Green Mining” initiative underscores waste management and the control of ecosystem risks [64,68,78]. Australia ensures environmental protection and restoration through measures such as the “Mine Closure Fund” [72,73]. It is recommended that Australia’s “mine closure fund + insurance bond” model be introduced to QXP to restore the environment and alleviate cash flow pressure on enterprises.

Foreign approaches are generally characterized by increased systematicity and comprehensiveness, encompassing the mines’ environmental management throughout their entire life cycle, from the initial planning and extraction phases to the final closure stage. There is a strong emphasis on minimizing environmental impacts and optimizing ecological restoration. In Argentina, mines are required to submit an Environmental Impact Report (EIR) to the enforcement authorities [73,79]. Argentina has also established a warning system that includes online environmental monitoring, enabling investors to understand the overall environmental conditions of the investment area [79,80]. The QXP primarily relies on inspections conducted at the provincial and county levels. However, the entity in question is faced with a shortage of personnel and equipment, which limits its capacity to carry out its duties effectively. The implementation of an online environmental monitoring system can be executed directly, with a subset of the local populace being trained in offline monitoring techniques. These could reduce the negative environmental impacts of mining activities and promote ecological restoration and sustainable development.

Green mine construction on the QXP, while ensuring production input, must consider environmental protection factors as a crucial aspect of technological breakthroughs. It is essential to conduct multiple rounds of high-standard and thorough deliberations on the economic benefits of mining development versus the challenges and costs of ecological restoration, thereby achieving a sustainable development model [7,68,80,81]. Monitoring and evaluation are vital tools for ensuring the effectiveness of green mine construction. It is necessary to establish and improve environmental monitoring and assessment systems, thus requiring regular evaluation of the outcomes of green mine construction. Meanwhile, technologies such as remote sensing and drones should be utilized for environmental monitoring. This enables timely identification and resolution of environmental issues [20,54,82]. However, due to the harsh climatic conditions of the QXP, many technologies are difficult to adapt to the local environment and require more frequent sampling and testing during the critical freeze–thaw period.

Institutional measures have been implemented in countries such as Canada and Australia to enforce “community equity trusts” or “Indigenous Impact and Benefit Agreements” (IBAs). The purpose of these measures is to ensure that communities and indigenous groups in mining areas receive a fair share of benefits and have meaningful participation in mineral development. Conversely, the QXP region has the potential to implement a pilot scheme, namely the “village collective economic shareholding cooperative” model. This initiative would facilitate the establishment of a benefit-sharing mechanism that is tailored to the region’s specific characteristics.

It is important to acknowledge that when medium-sized to large mining companies provide development benefits to local communities, they should prioritize the cultivation of technical talent. It enhances the competitiveness of local labor markets and fosters the development of internal technical capabilities for the sustainable utilization of regional mineral resources, thereby creating a virtuous cycle.

The sustainable development of green mining on the QXP is characterized by marked differences from international high-altitude mine construction in terms of environmental challenges, technological adaptability, and policy formulation. The distinctive characteristics of the QXP necessitate adopting customized and adaptable strategies for green mine construction.

4.3. Methodological Innovations and Limitations

This study employs the SWOT framework to systematically delineate multidimensional drivers and constraints of green mine development in the QXP. Its primary strength lies in synthesizing heterogeneous factors, including resource endowment with 25 million tonnes of copper reserves, technological applications like Zaozigou’s pioneering tailings dry-stacking technology, policy environments featuring national green mine initiatives, and ecological vulnerability reflected by increasing freeze–thaw erosion intensity indices. Nevertheless, inherent limitations persist in quantifying factor weighting and impact magnitude. Similarly, synergistic effects between technological advancements, such as innovative mining systems, reducing costs, and enhanced ecological resilience, lack quantitative expression.

The objective of this study is to conduct a conceptual evaluation from a macro perspective, systematically elaborating on the opportunities and challenges confronted in green mine development. From a macro viewpoint, quantitative analysis exerts a relatively limited impact on the overall conclusions of this paper. Nevertheless, the exclusive reliance on subjective qualitative analysis without quantitative validation remains a notable limitation of the research. Given structural constraints, the advancement of relevant quantitative research will be pursued in future endeavors. It will involve selecting core evaluation indicators and constructing targeted models. The introduction of the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) or entropy weighting can assign weights to SWOT factors, with priority given to core dimensions such as “ecological sensitivity” and “technological maturity”. By utilizing indicators including EIIC, RER, and SCBR, a comprehensive quantitative assessment can be conducted on the “economic–ecological” balance in the process of green mine construction, thereby providing more robust empirical support for the research conclusions [83,84].

5. Conclusions

Green mine construction on the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau (QXP) is a key pathway to realize the coordinated development of resource exploitation and ecological protection, and multiple internal and external factors jointly influence its progress. From the perspective of SWOT analysis and typical cases, this study sorts out the internal resource endowment and technical reserves for QXP’s green mining construction. It also identifies external policies and market opportunities. Additionally, it addresses multiple challenges, such as ecological vulnerability, harsh climate, regulation and public opinion. Moreover, it summarizes practical experiences in mine construction. This region has favorable conditions such as abundant mineral resource bases, experience in the application of some advanced technologies, and national policy support, which provide a solid foundation for green mine construction. For example, the “tiered greening” model of the Julong Copper Mine and the tailings dry-stacking technology of the Zaozigou Gold Mine have shown sound practical effects.

However, problems such as fragile ecosystems, insufficient technical adaptability caused by the harsh high-altitude environment, high costs of ecological restoration, unclear regulatory standards, and the need to improve public participation remain bottlenecks that urgently need to be broken through. Under the global trend of green development, international cooperation and technological exchanges provide ideas for addressing these challenges. For instance, drawing on Australia’s mine closure fund model and Canada’s community benefit-sharing mechanism, localized innovations can be carried out in combination with the actual situation in the QXP.

In the future, it is necessary to strengthen technological research and development further to adapt to the plateau environment, improve policies, regulations, and supervision systems, and establish a multi-stakeholder collaborative mechanism for benefit sharing and risk sharing among enterprises, communities, and the government. Establishing an environmental monitoring and evaluation system is crucial to ensuring the successful construction of green mines. The sustainable development of green mining in the QXP requires coordinated efforts in policies, technologies, society, and the environment, and the formulation of development models and strategies in a scientific manner.