Climate-Responsive Design Principles in Winter City Urban Public Open Spaces: A Case Study in Erzurum, Aziziye District

Abstract

Livability is an important consideration when planning urban public open spaces. To increase urban livability and the potential for a variety of human activities—including necessary, optional, and social activities—in winter cities, climate-responsive urban public open spaces that encourage urban activities must be developed. Erzurum, a winter city, was selected as a case study to evaluate the relationships between climatic conditions and human outdoor activities in urban spaces. This study’s methodological contributions include naturalistic observations and a descriptive examination of urban public open spaces, with a focus on soft mobility within such spaces in a neighborhood area in Erzurum. This study consists of three stages. (1) The first part defines winter cities globally, focusing on livability-related, tangible, and climate-responsive interventions in urban public open spaces. (2) The second part of this study follows the winter observation method, utilizing photographs to investigate how seasonal factors affect various kinds of outdoor activities and pedestrian systems. These photographs are presented and classified based on five key categories: street and walkway design, building access points, parking configurations, material and lighting treatments, and vegetative strategies. (3) Finally, this study uses solution-oriented thinking to provide recommendations informing climate-responsive design principles for urban spaces in Erzurum.

1. Introduction

In cities with long winters, the successful utilization of climate-responsive design principles in urban public open spaces is highly dependent on the natural setting and climatic conditions. Numerous studies have demonstrated the benefits of designing public open spaces in urban areas based on climate-responsive principles, which encourages people to spend time there. The daily essential, optional, and social activities of residents that are required to establish and preserve livability in urban settings are referred to as urban activities. However, performing these daily tasks is challenging for residents of cities with lengthy winters. Therefore, an indispensable factor in creating livable urban public open spaces is designing urban areas according to climate-responsive principles.

Considering the effects of environmental factors on human activities, it has been demonstrated that microclimatic conditions—including temperature, sunlight, shade, and wind—are essential for supporting outdoor activities and affect livability in urban public open spaces. However, in cities with long and cold winters, public open spaces are adversely affected by weather conditions including snow, ice, winds, and a lack of sunlight, reducing the quality and duration of time that people spend in these areas.

According to Pressman [1], in cities with long winters, people who engage in various outdoor activities need urban public open spaces that provide adequate access to sunlight and protection from other climatic factors. The benefits of implementing climate-responsive designs in urban public open spaces extend to the entire community, regardless of age, income level, race, gender, and other demographic characteristics [2]. The climate-responsive design of public open spaces in order to stimulate urban activities is a necessary task to develop a livable winter city [3,4,5,6]. Research into problems relating to the promotion of outdoor activities in winter cities has shown that people spend little time outdoors due to adverse climatic conditions. Buildings and landscape elements influence climatic factors such as sunshine and wind, potentially controlling them and creating more comfortable areas outdoors in which people spend more time [7].

Restricted outdoor activities, soft mobility issues, material shortages, the use of building materials with high thermal properties, roof slopes, and building orientation are typical features of cities in cold regions [8]. Cities with long winters, on the other hand, possess an aesthetic environmental appeal due to urban public areas being covered with snow during the cold months. Therefore, there are plenty of opportunities for the local people, tourists, sports, and cultural festivals in winter cities [9].

Climate-responsive design principles in urban areas aim to provide a safer, more accessible, livable, and aesthetically pleasing pedestrian environment in winter cities, thus increasing the use of outdoor spaces during the winter season [10]. One of the sustainable development policies promotes creating an urban form that reduces environmental impacts when designing public open spaces in winter cities, focusing on walking and cycling as soft mobility factors [11,12,13]. The climate conditions in cold cities are considered significant factors impacting a city’s social and physical structure in terms of urban public open spaces. In cities with cold climates, people tend to spend more time indoors [14].

Erzurum was chosen as a case study due to its harsh winter climate. The city is one of the most important educational centers in eastern Turkey and is known as a university town. On the other hand, due to its proximity to three important ski centers, the city is one of the world’s leading winter sports destinations, attracting many professional athletes from across the country and around the globe every winter. The goal of this study is to improve our understanding of how the interactions between urban form and climate affect outdoor human activities, with the aim of creating a more livable city. This study’s methodological contributions include observational and descriptive examinations of urban public open spaces in Erzurum’s Aziziye district. The elements analyzed during this study are the soft mobility aspects of streets and pedestrian sidewalks, building entrances, open parking areas, lighting, building construction materials, and planting strategies. Using photographs taken during the winter, this study applies an observation-based method to analyze the problems faced in the district’s public spaces associated with the winter climate.

2. Literature Review

Research on the effects of environmental factors on human life has shown that microclimatic conditions, including temperature, sunlight, shade, and wind, are indispensable for supporting people’s outdoor activities and affect livability in urban public open spaces. Climate conditions have a significant impact on the quality of time that people spend outdoors in cities that experience lengthy and frigid winters, particularly in terms of soft mobility factors. Challenges such as snow, ice, strong winds, and a lack of sunlight significantly reduce the usability of open spaces in winter cities [15]. The adverse effects of winter in urban areas can be caused by various environmental elements, as illustrated in Figure 1. The impacts of weather in urban open spaces include wind, insufficient sunlight, rain, snow, road spray, icy and slick surfaces, and roof icicles. Such conditions pose significant difficulties for pedestrians.

Numerous studies have examined the adverse effects of winter on urban public open spaces, with some detailed in the following. According to Chapman [5], who researched Luleå World Winter City, only 10 percent of people spend their free time outdoors during the cold season in Luleå. According to a survey conducted by Yılmaz et al. [16] in the winter city of Erzurum, 86.4 percent of the respondents stated that they spend their free time in shopping centers or covered places as there are not many activities to do outdoors in the winter months or because existing open spaces are insufficient.

The spatial quality of urban open spaces reflects the quality of daily life in urban areas. Therefore, it is essential to create more livable urban areas when designing public open spaces in cities with a winter season lasting more than five months and a harsh climate. The primary problem in winter cities is that cold temperatures seriously affect people’s daily outdoor activities, mobility, and safety [17]. The quality of urban public open spaces—namely, places for different genders, ages, and social and cultural classes to come together, carry out activities, and socialize—is a significant indicator of urban livability [18].

Ensuring thermal comfort in urban public open spaces in winter cities is a significant issue in maintaining and measuring livability [19,20,21,22]. The concept of livability is a holistic paradigm based on increasing the physical, environmental, and cultural dimensions of public open spaces, thus promoting human outdoor activities [23]. In other words, the livability concept reflects the relationships and principles formed in the quadrilateral of human–environment–settlement–society [24]. Livability in urban public open spaces refers to improvement in the quality of the artificial and natural environment. As a place-based concept [25], livability is assessed through various factors that indicate enhanced quality of life in these spaces, such as economic prosperity, equality, social stability, educational opportunities, non-motorized mobility, accessibility, and cultural and recreational opportunities [26,27].

One of the most significant indicators of livability issues in settlements with long cold seasons is the presence of urban public open spaces designed based on climate-responsive principles [21]. The main aim of the Winter City Design Guidelines and Beaumont Winter City Strategy [28,29] is to provide suitable access to a livable winter city in all seasons. Due to the impacts of climatic conditions on active outdoor urban life, creating livable public open spaces is a substantial issue to be addressed in urban design in order to support the community.

Climate-responsive design based on local climatic conditions is a fundamental factor in reducing adverse climatic effects and creating livable urban public open spaces [30]. For the evolution of winter cities to year-round cities, there is a substantial demand for good planning and design of public open spaces based on the creation of more attractive and walkable places [9], which plays a vital role in improving the livability of urban public open spaces. According to Chapman et al. [4], settlements with long winters face major challenges relating to outdoor urban activities such as soft mobility, daily physical activities, and livability.

World Winter Cities

The concepts of a livable winter city and climate-responsive design can be credited to the architect Ralph Erskine’s vision for winter communities. A leading figure in the field, Erskine published his “Grammar for High Latitude Architecture” in 1959, presenting 11 principles of climate-responsive design for urban areas in the European Arctic considered as winter settlements. His studies focused on how the form and layout of settlements could effectively counteract the harsh effects of winter [31]. The main principles incorporated by Erskine include year-round usability, contact with nature, user participation, and cultural continuity [9]. According to Chapman [32], the climate and microclimate are significant factors in urban design considerations that shape urban public open spaces. Since 1982, the Winter City Movement has been established for the comprehensive assessment of national and local strategic initiatives aimed at improving livability in the northern countries. The Winter Cities Association has produced numerous publications focusing on winter communities in Canada, Europe, Japan, North America, and Russia [33].

A clarification regarding winter cities is necessary here. During this study, two terms are used: winter city and Winter City. First, winter cities (in lowercase) are located at different latitudes around the world and exhibit cold climate characteristics. Secondly, ‘Winter Cities’ refers to a select group of cities with cold climates that are members of the World Winter Cities Association and adhere to its collective decisions and action plans.

According to Stout et al. [17], the Winter City Movement’s main goal is to solve seasonal problems in northern countries through the design of urban public open spaces that are tailored to the local climate. They have attempted to identify, promote, and share the positive attributes of winter living and urban design in cold regions by encouraging such cities to plan their transportation systems, soft mobility, buildings, livability, and recreation projects in such a way that livability is improved year-round.

To discuss ways to make World Winter City member towns more livable, the World Winter City Association for Mayors—which was founded following the Winter City Movement and comprises 22 cities in 9 countries at present—organizes meetings and conferences every year. Future planning of winter cities; sustainable development; quality of life; urban quality; climate change; transportation; fostering harmony in urban areas; and promoting art, culture, and sport are the key subjects of discussion [34]. Cold-climate cities around the world, including Saskatoon, Edmonton, Ottawa, Regina, Winnipeg, and Halifax, have been named World Winter Cities in previous years. Climate-responsive design concepts have been developed and implemented in member communities to provide model approaches for enhanced livability.

Based on the definition of the World Winter Cities Association [34], winter cities are places with a long winter season; snowy, cold weather; and harsh climatic conditions. In these settlements, the climate seriously affects people’s outdoor activities by creating restrictions [35].

Developing a standard description of a winter city is quite complicated, due to the diversity of cities with cold conditions. According to Pressman and Chapman et al. [32,36], winter cities are settlements with temperatures typically below zero, mainly due to their latitude, snowfall, ice, wind, and limited sunshine and daylight hours.

According to the World Winter Cities Association for Mayors (WWCAM)’s [34] definition, a winter city is located above a latitude of 45° N (i.e., northern countries)—although the considered latitude could be lowered to 40° N [17]—with a quarter of cities in the northern hemisphere located at such latitudes.

On the other hand, cities located at the same latitude will experience different climates due to various factors such as topography, proximity to the sea, and prevailing currents and winds. In addition, settlements in high mountainous areas have similar conditions to those above a latitude of 45° N.

Finally, the World Winter City Association for Mayors [34] has presented a definition of a winter city based on two climate characteristics:

• A winter city has an annual snow accumulation of more than 20 cm (8 In);
• A winter city has an average temperature of 0 °C (32 °F) or lower during the coldest months.

Despite the adverse climatic conditions in winter cities, people who settle in these areas wish to be able to use public open spaces for various social activities. Therefore, they should be as comfortable as possible in outdoor conditions. Gehl, in his book “Life Between Buildings” [37], divides outdoor activities in urban public open spaces into three categories, each with very different demands on the physical environment: necessary, optional, and social activities.

Necessary activities: This group includes going to school, work, shopping, and waiting for a bus or a person. The majority of these activities are related to walking. In general, everyday tasks and pastimes belong to this group, and the participant has no choice in whether to engage in these activities in the external environment.

Optional activities: This category includes walking to get fresh air and sunlight, sitting, and enjoying the outdoors. This group of activities is dependent on outdoor physical conditions, requiring the weather and conditions to be favorable.

Social activities: This group of activities depends on the presence of others in public open spaces. Social activities include children’s play, greetings, conversations, and communal activities of various kinds. Social activities occur spontaneously as a direct consequence of people moving about and being in the same space.

Urban public open spaces in winter cities tend to be comfortable during the summer; conversely, these areas are less likely to be used during winter due to the harsh outdoor environment characterized by snow accumulation, ice, and cold temperatures [38]. The climate conditions in winter cities influence how and whether people carry out necessary, optional, and social activities in urban public open spaces. As a result, the primary criteria for addressing these issues in urban public open spaces in winter cities include good utility design principles to promote urban connection, soft mobility, and safety through the use of climate-responsive design concepts, high-quality construction practices, and appropriate construction materials.

In urban public open spaces, strategically utilizing construction materials for walls, roofs, pavements, and other outdoor features can reduce or increase daytime heat gain [39,40]. Furthermore, urban and landscape design elements, including public open spaces and streetscapes, can enhance access to sun and shade. Thus, utilizing suitable construction materials in public open spaces can be expected to increase the quality of these places in winter cities [41,42]. Livability in winter city urban areas means enhancing access to soft mobility activities such as walking and cycling, as well as improving the quality of the associated routes.

To improve livability in a winter city, climate-responsive urban design must account for various factors, particularly the urban form and winter-specific environmental conditions. According to Chapman et al. [4], urban form encompasses various elements, including siting, layout, building height, massing, facades, cladding, the public realm, and landscape design. Meanwhile, winter conditions involve considerations such as solar access, wind exposure, snowfall, precipitation, low temperatures, limited daylight, and snow-covered surfaces.

According to the Project for Public Spaces [43], with the economy of globalization, winter cities can no longer appear lifeless for a quarter of the year. During winter, when the environment is more challenging, an essential demand is to think differently about public spaces and events. People choose cities to live in based on their sense of local identity and culture, diverse activities and dynamic communities, urban amenities, employment opportunities, and the management of urban spaces throughout the year—not just when it is warm and sunny.

Although 22 cities in 9 countries are recognized as World Winter Cities, only some of these cities provide guidelines for implementing climate-responsive designs, strategies, or specific practices for urban open spaces. On the other hand, the existing guidelines are limited, unilateral, or only cover management rules, not design principles. The examples examined in the literature are member Winter Cities that have specific climate-responsive design guidelines for urban areas. However, most of these guidelines are not comprehensive and only address a few issues relating to winter in urban open spaces. A few of the known research projects completed by members of the World Winter Cities, which serve as examples of good planning and design work, are presented in the following. The majority of these initiatives in World Winter Cities were implemented within limited work areas.

In research on Harbin World Winter City, China, the impacts of climatic factors on the perceived temperature in the city’s public open spaces were evaluated [35]. As a result of this study, it was found that planting in the open areas of Harbin Winter City helps to maintain a balance between environmental factors and human comfort through visual and functional effects [44]. This study investigated the impacts of planting on livability in urban public open areas while also mitigating the negative consequences of a cold environment. In Kiruna World Winter City, Switzerland [45], a method to improve winter cycling mobility for the daily movement of residents has been investigated, applying climate-responsive design guidelines for the creation of snow drift areas, construction materials, and planting. The primary objective of this project was to enhance cycling routes within the city.

In Sapporo World Winter City, Japan, a strategic vision for urban development has been prepared by the local government based on climate-responsive design strategies for urban public open spaces. In particular, it considered three types of strategies: creative strategies, urban space support strategies, and administrative management strategies [46]. The focus of this project was to devise strategies for planning a livable winter city, rather than developing climate-responsive design principles.

The key measures for making Saint Paul, USA, a livable Winter City [47] included increasing physical activity in urban public open spaces, improving winter mobility, brightening the city, and activating the night. These strategies were prepared and applied by the local government. The Pedestrian and Cycling Strategies Guide for the World Winter City of Winnipeg [48], Canada, was produced within the scope of the City’s project to increase transportation options in the city of Winnipeg during the winter season and to make walking and cycling possible for everyone. This guide has been prepared and is currently being implemented by the local government, municipality, and local people. To transform Fort St John in British Columbia, Canada, into a World Winter City, Winter City Design Guidelines have been developed in two phases. The first was produced in 2000, under the Winter City Design Guidelines [15]. The second was prepared in 2017 with the title Winter City Micro-Project Strategy, which builds on the previous project [49].

The city of Edmonton’s Sustainable Development Department has created Winter Design Guidelines for the World Winter City Edmonton in Canada. These guidelines were prepared in cooperation with the City of Edmonton, the University of Alberta, and Ewan University, along with the participation of local stakeholders. To date, this guideline is the most comprehensive winter city guide on the urban scale. It was prepared based on five climate-responsive design pillars: blocking the wind in urban areas, making the most of sunlight based on building orientation and design, creating vitality by using light and color, increasing mobility, and improving the infrastructure of winter cities. Urban public open space design strategies include aspects such as neighborhood and children’s playground design, urban and neighborhood scale, open car parking area design, pedestrian and bicycle path design, open space planting, urban furniture, urban signs, public vehicle stops, overpasses and bridges, and street arts. Architectural design includes building orientation and entrances, climate-responsive architectural design of buildings, roof form, building eaves, the use of climate-responsive materials, color, and lighting [50,51].

Regina, Canada [52], has developed winter-friendly initiatives (Winter City Strategies) to support its development as a livable winter city. These include promoting winter events and activities; improved ease of movement; celebrating Regina’s culture, heritage, and traditions; creating winter spaces in urban areas; incorporating urban design for winter activities; and creating warming winter areas based on color psychology through strategic lighting. The main strategies for creating a livable Winter City in Saskatoon, Canada [53], are to develop a vibrant, safe, and prosperous place in winter through planning and development of recreation and community facilities, sustainability, and transit. Both of these prepared strategies are being implemented on a small scale by local municipalities.

3. Materials and Methods

This study aims to address the gap in understanding how the relationships between urban form and climatic conditions influence human outdoor activities. The primary objective is to identify key factors for the design of public open spaces in winter cities, with Erzurum selected as a case study due to its severe winter climate. The city is considered as a university town, and it is one of the top winter sports destinations in the country and in the world because of its three major ski centers, which draw a large number of professional athletes each winter from all over the nation and the world. Therefore, one of the most significant demands of local residents is for it to be a vibrant city year-round, thus attracting young people and tourists.

This study focuses on soft mobility in public open spaces in Erzurum’s Aziziye district and makes a methodological contribution by analyzing urban settings through observation and description.

The first section is a literature review that defines winter cities globally and examines the emergence of the winter city movement, focusing on livability and tangible climate-responsive interventions. In this context, the origin of the winter city concept is examined, along with its aims, roots, and scope. The concept’s primary goal is to increase the livability of urban open spaces through climate-adaptive design methods in cities with long winters. The focus of this text is climate-responsive design principles, which have been studied in the context of World Winter Cities. The information obtained is then applied to identify problems in the study area and develop solutions.

The second section is focused on how seasonal elements affect outdoor activities and pedestrian systems in Erzurum’s Aziziye district, including public open spaces. Using photographs taken during the winter, an observation-based method is applied to analyze winter-related problems in the district’s public spaces.

The observational and naturalistic approach to this study involves taking photographs of public open spaces in the city of Erzurum. This approach is primarily used in urban design, architecture, and landscape architecture research to analyze how people use and interact with outdoor environments. This study involves analyzing photographs, particularly to document the use of space and social dynamics in public open spaces from 2019 to 2022. The photographs were taken in winter, on weekdays, and at the start of everyday life (i.e., between administrative working hours), when the district is bustling with people. At this stage, people’s daily soft mobility routes were selected to capture photos, focusing on the spatial configuration of spaces and the relationships between built elements and their intended uses. As a non-intrusive technique, this method does not require authorization for passive monitoring and does not annoy residents in cold weather conditions. Furthermore, as it permits retroactive analysis, it is efficient in terms of working time. Finally, this approach provides visual proof, which is helpful for participatory planning, presentations, and urban audits. The daily routes of residents in the neighborhood are considered movement routes in urban open spaces. This study took into account the spatial deficiencies in the district’s public open spaces. In this context, we examined the challenges faced by residents during the cold season along their movement routes, including aspects such as building entrances, open car park areas, streets and walkways, material and lighting treatments, and vegetative strategies, to assess their daily activities (e.g., work, school, and shopping) at different times of the day. The observed data are classified and interpreted through the lens of climate-responsive design principles, with particular attention paid to the challenges faced on streets, walkways, and building fronts. This study focuses on non-motorized mobility and accessibility in light of the negative impacts of climate change on people’s daily lives. In this context, the physical and climatic factors that restrict or impede human movement in urban open spaces in cities experiencing long winters are examined. Passive design methods or climate-responsive designs are used to mitigate the adverse effects of climatic factors. Physical factors affecting urban open spaces and human movement include sidewalks and the green spaces along them, open car park areas, flooring materials, building entrances, and lighting.

The final section evaluates the deficiencies in Erzurum’s urban public spaces, dis-cussing the relationships between climatic conditions, outdoor activities, and livability. The paper concludes with a proposal for local design strategies to improve the usability and value of public open spaces in winter cities. Figure 2 presents a general flow diagram of this study.

3.1. Target Area: Erzurum City

Erzurum is situated in the northeast of Turkey, at an elevation of 1890 m above sea level, with the coordinates 39°54′31″ N, 41°16′37″ E [54]. The city’s population in 2024 was almost 745,000 [55]. Erzurum is on the northern periphery of the Palandöken Mountains, which are associated with three significant ski resorts [56,57]. The Palandöken Center is the most significant, having acquired prominence in Turkey’s winter tourism sector [58]. The snow season starts in October or November and lasts until the end of April [59]. As the city is known for its winters and freezing temperatures, it is necessary to consider these factors while developing the city in order to make it livable all year round, not just for those who prefer winter travel.

Olgyay [60] classified the climatic characteristics of the different regions of the world. He emphasized that significant design factors affecting the quality of life and human temperature comfort in urban public open spaces are the compatibility of building form, building orientation, building facades, cladding, settlement texture, and climate-responsive design of the landscape.

According to Köppen’s [61] World Climate Classification, cold climate zones have harsh winters, with the average temperature in the warmest month exceeding 10 °C and that in the coldest month being less than −3 °C. The Köppen categorization is based on natural vegetation, yearly precipitation, and average annual temperature. According to the Köppen–Geiger climate classification, Turkey has a moderate mid-latitude climate. However, due to its three sea borders, high mountain ranges in the north and south, diverse topography, and rising elevation from west to east, it experiences a variety of climates [62]. Due to its high accuracy and spatial consistency, the Köppen–Geiger climate classification is one of the most used approaches for categorizing the world’s climatic zones. Monthly and annual temperature and precipitation data serve as the foundation for this approach.

Erzurum has a humid continental climate, which is defined by significant seasonal temperature variations, warm and frequently humid summers, and cold to extremely cold winters, according to the Köppen climatic classification [63]. Figure 3 presents the location of Erzurum in the northeast of Turkey, considered as the target region in this study.

The Köppen–Geiger sub-climate types in Turkey are depicted in Figure 4. Erzurum City is situated in the Dfb zone (navy blue area), which has cold weather, severe winters, rainy seasons during the year, and cool summers [64].

This region of the country is a cold climate zone with long, severe winters and temperatures below freezing for almost half of the year. The lowest average temperature for this region is around −20 °C in winter. Precipitation occurs as rain in summer and snow in winter. Snowfall usually starts in October and lasts until mid-May. On the other hand, summers are short and cool, with relatively low rainfall and relative humidity. The wind creates a perception of more severe cold [64]. Therefore, this study suggests that the sensitive design of Erzurum, as a winter city, should focus on people’s outdoor activities through improving outdoor thermal comfort in urban public open spaces.

Oral [66] studied five distinct climate zones in Turkey and created guidelines for the orientation and shape of buildings to maximize solar radiation. He recommended that the building form be compact and square in cold areas, that the building orientation be 22° southeast, and that the facades be smaller to protect against wind and other weather conditions. Yüceer [67] stated that windbreakers are necessary when constructing structures in urban areas with high winds during the cold season in the cold climatic regions of Turkey. The use of materials with good thermal characteristics for floor coverings and building surfaces is also important.

3.1.1. Climatic Conditions of Erzurum City

Figure 5 presents a graph of Erzurum’s average temperature in 2024. The dashed red and blue lines show the average day and night temperatures for each month over the last 30 years [68].

From the graph, it can be seen that Erzurum’s summer is temperate, dry, and clear, while winter is freezing and snowy. Over the year, the temperature typically varies from −14 °C to 27 °C. Based on the diagram, average temperatures during the months of November, December, January, February, March, and April are all below zero. The minimum temperatures are registered during the three months of winter—namely, December, January, and February (−10, −14, and −12 °C)—and the average daily minimum temperature during these months is −12 °C, while the average coldest night temperature during these months is −22.6 °C.

Figure 6 shows a graph of the average yearly snowfall in Erzurum City based on World Weather Online data [69]. From this graph, it can be seen that the average snowfall during snowy months is 24.87 cm, while there are 62 snowy days on average.

Furthermore,

Table 1. Erzurum extreme maximum, minimum, and average temperatures measured during long period (1929–2017) [70].

ERZURUM	Jan	Feb	Ma	Apr	Ma	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec	Annual
Average Temperature (°C)	−9.2	−7.7	−2.5	5.3	10.7	14.9	19.3	19.5	14.7	8.1	1.0	−6.0	5.7
Average Max. Temp. (°C)	−4.0	−2.4	2.4	10.8	16.8	21.6	26.4	27.1	22.6	15.0	6.7	−1.0	11.8
Average Min. Temp. (°C)	−13.9	−12.6	−7.1	0.0	4.3	7.3	11.1	11.1	6.4	1.7	−3.7	−10.3	−0.5
Average Sunrise Time (hours)	3.1	4.3	5.1	6.2	7.9	10.2	11.1	10.6	9.0	6.7	4.7	3.0	81.9
Ave Number of Rainy Days	11.1	11.1	12.3	13.7	16.1	10.8	6.5	5.1	5.0	9.5	9.3	10.6	121.1
Monthly Total Rainfall Average (mm)	22.4	27.0	34.9	53.4	72.9	48.7	26.6	17.5	23.7	48.2	33.3	22.6	431.2

illustrates the number of annual snowy days and days with an average temperature below 0 °C over a long period (1929–2017), based on data from the Turkish State Meteorological Service [70]. Based on this table, it can be seen that the average minimum temperature in the three winter months (December, January, and February) is −12.3 °C, while the average annual total rainfall is 431.2 mm (43.12 cm).

Figure 7, which was developed based on World Weather Online data [69], demonstrates the average sunshine hours in Erzurum during the year.

According to Figure 7, the city receives approximately 2400 h of sunshine yearly. During the summer months, Erzurum receives approximately 10–11 h of sunlight each day, while winter days are substantially shorter, with only 4–5 h of sunlight. Spring and autumn are characterized by moderate sunshine, averaging 6–8 h daily. Thus, climate-sensitive designs should aim to maximize solar exposure, especially in open spaces often used by people. Sunshine hours are a general indicator of the cloudiness of a location and thus differ from insolation, which measures the total energy delivered by sunlight over a given period. The number of hours of sunshine is a significant factor accounting for the psychological effects of solar light on human well-being and can be used to promote tourist destinations and enhance outdoor activities in urban areas.

3.1.2. Climatic Relevant Problems in Urban Areas

Public open spaces in urban areas are locations where people engage in necessary and everyday activities, such as attending school, working, shopping, and waiting for a bus. People have no option but to carry out such activities every day. This study aims to investigate the problems experienced by pedestrians in public open spaces during the winter. Many photographs of Erzurum’s winter sidewalks and streets were captured to illustrate the challenges that people face daily when moving around outside.

The analysis revolves around five key classification categories: (1) streets and pedestrian sidewalks, (2) building entrances, (3) open parking areas, (4) lighting and building construction materials, and (5) planting strategies. These categories served as the analytical framework for the naturalistic observations conducted within local public open spaces. The observational study was conducted in Erzurum between 2019 and 2022, during which an extensive photographic record of public open spaces was compiled. A selection of these images, taken in the district’s residential areas, was organized according to the categories mentioned in

Table 2. Images of climate’s adverse effects in the public open spaces of Erzurum, Aziziye district.

Public Open Space Problems
Streets and Sidewalks	Building Entrance	Open Car Park Areas	Lighting/Construction Material	Planting
1.	6.	11.	16.	21.
2.	7.	12.	17.	22.
3.	8.	13.	18.	23.
4.	9.	14.	19.	24.
5.	10.	15.	20.	25.

. These visual data were subsequently employed to derive climate-responsive urban design principles aimed at enhancing the functionality and sustainability of public open spaces.

The study area is located in a newly developed area of the city, as illustrated in Figure 8. The neighborhood is located entirely outside the city boundaries, in an underdeveloped area with a low-density urban fabric.

In Figure 8, the yellow line indicates the study area’s borders; the red line represents the residential area’s boundary, within which all photos were obtained; and the green line depicts a small area with a public function.

The study district’s contemporary urban layout follows a grid pattern oriented along the east–west and north–south axes [71]. Despite being a recently developed neighborhood, the district has significant shortcomings in terms of urban form and public open space design elements; for instance, there are not many public playgrounds, green areas, or open spaces for social activities. Thus, the study elements were restricted to sidewalks. Due to these features, the assessment of urban areas solely took building entrances, roadside trees, and access roads into account.

The neighborhood’s residential typology features standardized characteristics in terms of facades and cladding and square-shaped buildings. These are four- to five-story apartment buildings with a discrete layout. Most of the buildings are surrounded by small open green areas, serving as boundaries. The construction date, building form, number of floors, construction materials, and facade layouts all share similar characteristics. Considering the newly developed nature of the district, there is a large amount of vacant land between building blocks, which increases the adverse effects of climate conditions.

Table 2 details the photographic documentation and results obtained for the residential neighborhood in Aziziye district, as a recently developed area of Erzurum, categorized into the five groups mentioned above.

4. Results

Within the theoretical framework of this study, an urban form encompasses climate conditions and urban elements. Urban elements consist of siting, layout, building height, massing, facade, cladding, public realm, and landscape design factors.

The climate conditions in the city of Erzurum were examined based on climatic data. Based on the findings of Olgyay, Köppen’s world climate classification, and the study findings presented in Figure 3, Figure 4, Figure 5, Figure 6 and Figure 7 and Table 1, Erzurum’s climate is characterized by cold, snowy winters and dry summers, with significant seasonal variations in precipitation and temperature. The findings regarding the city’s climatic conditions are entirely consistent with the World Winter City Association for Mayors’ definition of a winter city. Thus, in this study, the aforementioned definition was used as an indicator to recognize the target area’s climate characteristics. The city’s climatic conditions provide a fundamental context for future new World Winter Cities.

The findings regarding the urban elements of the study concerned facades, cladding, the public realm, and landscape design. Negative effects of the climatic conditions, like the short winter daylight hours, the oblique angle of the sun, and the temperature differential during the day, were identified as a result of the literature review. These factors lengthen the amount of time sidewalks are covered in ice, limit people in outdoor activities, and have a detrimental effect on people’s urban lives. In contrast, the primary goal of climate-responsive design in winter city settings is to increase solar radiation, provide wind support, lessen shadows, and make the urban environment more livable and walkable.

Table 3. Problems faced in the public open spaces of Aziziye district, Erzurum, in winter.

Public Open Space Problems
Streets and Sidewalks	- Lack of or unsuitable snowdrift areas along sidewalks and streets; - Narrow sidewalks; - Unsuitable lighting or color for foggy times; - Bus stops without wind and snow protection; - Lack of trees planted as windbreaks and snowdrifts; - A narrow-width planting area along sidewalks; - Lack of evergreen trees as windbreaks in sidewalk areas; - Lack of investment in suitable climate design of public open spaces has made these areas places to drive through; - Lack of connection of public open spaces as a network for walking around the city.
Building Entrances	- Irresponsible climate design in the orientation of buildings, site planning, and building entrance areas; - Lack of suitable canopies over building entrances; - Use of slippery construction materials with bright colors in building’s entrances; - Use of bright and white construction materials for building facades creates problems in foggy weather; - Use of wrong canopy materials, causing the formation of icicles; - Lack of parapet walls on inclined roofs; - Use of curtain walls in building facades.
Open Car Park Areas	- Lack of snowdrift areas around or along open car park areas; - Lack of trees planted as windbreaks and snowdrifts around car park areas; - Wide-open car parks with no wind protection; - Location of open car park areas in places with no sunlight during the day.
Lighting and Construction Materials	- Lack of suitable lighting for foggy weather; - Lack of use of colored lighting to increase psychological thermal comfort during cold weather; - Use of white construction material in facades, cladding, and floor surfaces with a high coefficient of reflection and high slipperiness; - Lack of warm-colored construction material with a high light-scattering coefficient in foggy conditions.
Planting	- Planting evergreen trees is a good idea in places with snow but can be carried out incorrectly; - Planting trees in rows instead of planting them in group forms to decrease snow splashes and allow them to serve as windbreaks; - Lack of strategic use of trees as windbreaks and the provision of storage areas throughout public areas; - Narrow-width planting areas along the sidewalks.

illustrates the data derived from the examination of images in Table 2 under the themes of irresponsible urban design and the adverse effects of climate change.

Table 3 summarizes the negative consequences of failing to apply climate-responsive design principles. These problems are categorized into five types.

The first type involves sidewalk and roadway scenarios, in which irresponsible climate design creates a hazardous and slippery environment for pedestrians. In this regard, the negative consequences include a lack of snowdrift zones along sidewalks and streets, with the lack of trees planted along sidewalks contributing to the problem of snow berms. In some areas, the planting areas are narrow and there is inadequate space for snow drifts. On the other hand, evergreen trees serve as windbreaks, mitigating the effects of cold winds while impeding the distribution of snow. Group planting is more effective than linear planting for windbreak and snowdrift purposes. Narrow sidewalks with slippery surfaces and insufficient area for snowdrifts or green areas restrict people’s movement and increase snow splashing. These areas are inadequate for creating mixed land use or cycle lanes. In addition, the predominant wind directions and access to sunlight are crucial factors in urban planning. To protect from cold winter winds and reduce the risk of icy surfaces, main roads should be built in areas that receive more sunshine. The bus stop spaces along the street were found to be exposed to the elements, with no protection from the wind or cold weather.

The second group of problems relate to building orientation, site planning, entrance areas, building canopies, and the height of buildings (i.e., the creation of shadows and blocking of the sun’s rays). Irresponsible climate design when developing building sites includes orienting blocks to prevent the sun’s rays from catching buildings. A building’s entrance should receive more sun in the morning after a cold night. Appropriate use of canopies and awnings over entrance areas provides good protection from wind and icy surfaces. Another issue with buildings is the roof shape. An inappropriate roof design or the lack of a parapet wall can lead to frosty roofs and the formation of icicles during the day. These icicles melt in the sunlight during the day, increasing the threat of their falling on people. Another severe issue is the use of inappropriate construction materials with light colors—such as white marble stone or slippery materials—around buildings, which can create unsafe areas. Furthermore, the use of bright-colored construction materials in building facades increases the reflection of solar radiation instead of absorbing it. Another major problem in site plan design is the unsuitable placement of trees, preventing sunlight from accessing the buildings’ facades. Using deciduous trees on the near sides of buildings is effective as this allows sunlight to pass through to the building and floor surfaces in winter, while increasing natural ventilation in summer.

The third group of problems relates to open car parks. First and foremost, the design of these areas needs to take into account building orientation and the availability of daytime sunshine. The fronts of buildings should be designed to accommodate various uses, such as snow drift and car parking areas. Unshielded, vast open car parks increase snow spray from the wind.

Regarding the fourth group of problems, unsuitable lighting under foggy conditions has adverse effects on the quality of public open spaces. On the one hand, unsuitable lighting and facade and cladding construction materials with bright colors have decreased visibility in foggy weather; on the other hand, they may also decrease psychological thermal comfort during cold weather.

Regarding the fifth group of issues, it is considered effective to utilize trees that can withstand cold and salt. As can be seen from the images, urban open spaces and open car park areas lack natural protection such as trees. In this case, the adverse effects of wind and snow splashing are increased. Furthermore, the inappropriate placement of trees is a significant factor contributing to catching the wind or increasing shaded areas. Evergreen trees may act as a windbreaks and decrease snow splashing; on the other hand, green planting areas may serve as snowdrift areas.

Firstly, Köppen’s research focused on climatic factors and planting. In the case of a city such as Erzurum—which exhibits the characteristics of a winter city—climate-responsive planting designs can mitigate the adverse effects of climatic conditions and create a more livable city. In this context, plantings in public open spaces, such as along sidewalks and around open car park areas, can be considered an effective method for reducing adverse climate effects, especially when planting evergreen trees in cluster forms as windbreaks and snow-catchers. This planting method should be implemented along streets and pavements, as well as around open car parks. On the other hand, it is necessary to create a balance between evergreen and deciduous trees, with evergreen trees acting as windbreaks and deciduous trees acting as filters.

Secondly, according to Olgyay and Oral, the form, facades, cladding, and orientation of buildings are significant considerations in climate-responsive design principles. Consequently, analysis of the siting and orientation of the buildings and entrance areas in the study area illustrated a lack of sufficient climate-responsive designs. Canopies are preferable for covering entrance areas in order to prevent snow and slippery surfaces. According to Yüceer, the construction materials used for building facades and around buildings must be suited to cold, foggy, and icy conditions in terms of their color and surface material. The roof systems of buildings and canopies should be designed to mitigate the formation of icicles.

Thirdly, significant criteria for creating a livable winter city include creating suitable snowdrift areas along streets and sidewalks, avoiding narrow sidewalks, creating connections between public open spaces, applying suitable lighting or colors for guidance in foggy conditions, and creating bus stops that provide protection against wind and snow. The design of suitable lighting for a winter city should be based on the use of warm colors or those with high penetration, thus increasing psychological thermal comfort during cold and foggy weather.

5. Discussion

In the urban areas of Erzurum, its residents have a wide range of needs; for example, they need spaces for social and elective activities in addition to required activities. Public open spaces are essential for everyday activities, social interactions, bargaining, shopping, commuting, winter festivals, outdoor winter sports for both adults and children, and drawing tourists, among other uses. These areas encourage people to spend time outside and participate in public life, providing opportunities for people to interact and communicate with others throughout the year. People of different ages, genders, and ethnicities gather in these areas for various activities and to enjoy urban life. Human-scale construction and pedestrian-friendly design are essential for a livable winter city. However, key difficulties for winter cities include the dominant adverse weather conditions faced in winter, such as wind, frost, snow, limited sunshine, and persistent cold, which restrict access to public spaces.

Winter’s natural wealth generates enormous economic value and benefits for the city of Erzurum. The application of sensitive design concepts in public open spaces allows for consideration of the shifting needs of residents and visitors throughout the year, including during the winter. Good site planning and well-designed buildings, streets, and sidewalks can address the abovementioned issues, thus increasing the comfort of residents during winter. Well-used open spaces, such as main streets or community car parks, are prime candidates for climate-sensitive design.

In addition to showcasing winter’s natural beauty, climate-responsive architecture aims to provide winter communities with enhanced comfort, livability, safety, mobility, and accessibility. Climate-responsive landscape architecture design should result in a healthier microclimate and more livable and welcoming public spaces. For all seasons, appropriately designed streetscape elements, connectedness, color, materials, and lighting create vibrant and enticing spaces for residents. Through sensitive site design, urban open spaces can be expected to promote winter enjoyment, activity, beauty, and intrigue by optimally utilizing components of the built urban environment. Public winter infrastructure supports everyday winter activities, recreation, and outdoor winter programs.

According to the study area’s climate statistics, Erzurum possesses all the characteristics of a winter city by global standards. The local government’s primary objectives should be to provide municipal infrastructure, improve people’s quality of life throughout the year, and transform the city from a winter destination into a place that is enjoyable, safe, and livable all year round. These requests are among the main objectives of national development plans. The Republic of Turkey’s 12th Development Plan (2024–2028) prioritizes environmental sustainability and the creation of climate-friendly and resilient cities as part of efforts to combat climate change. In line with approaches that promote healthy, high-quality living and climate-friendly growth in cities, efforts are being made to encourage walking and to combine traditional and modern urban planning principles within the context of sustainability.

An effective way to achieve these goals is leveraging climate-responsive design principles to create a livable winter city and address relevant demands. The government should create comprehensive climate-responsive design guidelines or special strategies in collaboration with the city’s universities and other stakeholders. In this context, this study proposes some climate-responsive design principles.

Principle 1: Streets and Sidewalks

• Create suitable snowdrift areas along sidewalks and streets.
• Create wide sidewalks and wide planting areas along sidewalks.
• Create wide sidewalks to accommodate cycling in summer and temporary snow drifts in winter.
• Use rough, non-slip, and colored construction materials in pavement to decrease the slipperiness of surfaces.
• Design bus stops that shelter people from the wind and cold during the winter months.
• Use suitable lighting or colors for foggy conditions.
• Plant evergreen trees as windbreaks along sidewalk areas.

Principle 2: Building Entrances

• Good designs based on climate-responsive design principles can create a visually stimulating environment at the pedestrian level, including continuous building facades with awnings, signs, warm colors, and suitable lighting features.
• Use construction materials with a rough surface, colors with high sunlight absorption, and colors with high penetration coefficients under foggy conditions to provide better living quality for residents.
• Evergreen trees are suitable windbreaks for buildings, if planted at an acceptable distance from the building to allow sunlight through.
• Building and canopy roof systems should be designed to prevent icicle formation.
• Considering the climate conditions, the orientation of buildings, site planning, and building entrance areas should be designed appropriately.
• Use suitable canopies and parapet walls on inclined roofs over building entrances to prevent the formation of icicles.
• Use rough and non-slippery construction materials with warm colors in building entrances.
• Use warm construction materials in building facades to create a deep view in foggy weather.

Principle 3: Open Car Park Areas

• Open car park areas should be located in places with good access to sunlight during the day.
• An open car park should ideally be surrounded with evergreen trees as windbreaks.
• Smaller parking lots with separating landscaped islands decrease wind speeds, protect against snow drifts, and make it simpler for people to locate their cars.
• Planting trees in groups rather than in rows provides better protection from snow and wind around open car park spaces.

Principle 4: Lighting and Construction Materials

• Using lighting that performs well under foggy conditions improves the quality of public open spaces.
• Suitably colored lighting can increase psychological thermal comfort during cold weather.
• Use warm-colored construction materials instead of bright colors on facades and surfaces, given their high light-scattering coefficient under foggy conditions.
• Increasing pedestrian lighting and furniture improves comfort and safety, helping to transform these areas into places for people.
• Using seasonal lights is a great way to create a distinctive winter setting.

Principle 5: Planting

• Planting trees along streets and sidewalks creates an area for snow drifts, which traps snow and improves the condition of the sidewalk for pedestrians.
• Group plantings are more effective than linear plantings for windbreaks and for snow drifts.
• Increasing the width of planting areas along sidewalks increases the snow drift area, allows for the creation of a cycle lane, and can help to protect against the prevailing cold wind.
• Evergreen trees can be planted to act as windbreaks and decrease snow splashing.
• Evergreen trees can deflect cold winds, while deciduous trees allow for solar exposure in the winter.
• Lawn areas are suitable for storing snow and can serve as play spaces during winter.