Post-Pandemic Ecotourism Intentions and Climate Change Perceptions: The Role of Personality Domains

Abstract

This study aims to reveal how ecotourists’ general perceptions, concerns, and intentions to act regarding climate change have been shaped in the context of their personality domains following the COVID-19 pandemic. Data were collected from 409 participants who took part in nature walking activities in Turkey in 2024 using a survey method. The data were analyzed using quantitative methods such as structural equation modeling (SEM) and multiple regression analyses. The findings reveal statistically significant relationships between Big-Five personality domains of ecotourists’ and their perceptions of climate change, concerns, intentions to act, and ecotourism intentions. The results reveal that attitudes toward climate change have become more pronounced, especially in the post-pandemic period, and that personality domains are a strong determinant in shaping these attitudes. This study is important for the development of sustainable tourism policies and for providing strategic recommendations to managers in the field of ecotourism.

1. Introduction

The literature on climate change and tourism is growing rapidly as scientific understanding and societal responses to the climate crisis evolve [1]. While early studies focused directly on the effects of climate on tourism, recent years have seen an increase in research on topics such as changes in tourist behavior and demand responses [2]. However, studies that comprehensively address climate change in the context of ecotourism remain limited [3]. Following a paradigm-shifting development such as the COVID-19 pandemic, studies addressing two current issues (climate change and pandemics) are gaining importance, and different approaches are being presented [4]. A review of the literature reveals that public attitudes toward climate change have become more pronounced in the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic. A report published by the International Monetary Fund [5] presents findings from a study conducted with over 14,000 individuals across 16 countries, indicating that both direct and indirect exposure to the pandemic significantly increased concern about climate change and support for green recovery policies. These findings suggest that, contrary to expectations that health crises and economic hardships would suppress environmental priorities, climate-related anxiety has in fact intensified. Similarly, in their study, Stefkovics and Hortay [6] stated that individuals experiencing deep concern about COVID-19 not only felt greater anxiety about climate change but also showed an increase in climate awareness. Furthermore, it was noted that these individuals perceived the negative impacts of climate change more strongly. Likewise, Wardana [7], in a comparative study covering 18 countries using secondary data, demonstrates that fear of COVID-19 and economic anxiety have increased environmental concern in many countries. This finding is significant as it shows that post-pandemic attitudes toward climate change have been expressed more intensely and explicitly, thus becoming more pronounced. However, it is also noted that the effect was not consistent across all countries and, in some contexts, proved to be ineffective or even produced opposite results. In addition, in their study, Matiiuk and Liobikienė [8] revealed that during the COVID-19 pandemic, there was a significant increase in people’s concerns about the environment and climate change, and that individuals, influenced by the pandemic, were inclined toward environmentally friendly behaviors such as waste separation and the conservation of natural resources. Collectively, these studies indicate that the pandemic has functioned as a societal and psychological turning point, making public perceptions, anxieties, and behavioral tendencies regarding climate change more salient.

The intersection between the COVID-19 pandemic and climate change has led individuals to reassess their consumption habits, modes of mobility, and lifestyles. In this context, the tourism sector—being both a cause and a victim of environmental change—has entered a growing phase of scrutiny. Especially with the rise in individuals’ environmental concerns and the development of pro-environmental behaviors, interest in more sustainable travel alternatives has increased [9,10]. As a form of tourism grounded in nature, focused on environmental conservation, and based on responsible travel, ecotourism has emerged as a strong response to these concerns [11,12,13]. In the post-pandemic period, where values such as health, safety, authenticity, and environmental responsibility have come to the forefront, ecotourism has been positioned as a travel mode aligned with individuals’ evolving values. Therefore, understanding the psychological foundations of ecotourism intention within the context of climate change perception and value transformations triggered by the pandemic has become more important than ever in the post-COVID-19 tourism context. The reflections of climate change in ecotourism studies have predominantly been addressed within the scope of impact, vulnerability, resilience, adaptation strategies, and policies, and it is observed that they generally adopt a destination-focused approach [14,15,16,17,18]. However, there is still a lack of research investigating the connections between individuals’ perceptions of climate change and their willingness to make green-oriented choices and take actions—such as traveling in line with ecotourism principles [3,19].

At the same time, although ecotourism is a type of tourism that is gaining more attention, studies examining the effect of personality domains on these behaviors are also quite limited [20]. On the other hand, personality domains are among the fundamental factors influencing tourists’ decision-making processes [21]. Atzeni and colleagues [3] examined the effects of variables such as ecotourists’ environmental values, materialism, and climate change perceptions on ecotourism intention in their study; however, they emphasized that psychographic structures such as personality domains should be addressed in future research. The same study noted that the pandemic created a breaking point that triggered value transformations in individuals, leading to more environmentally friendly, sustainability-oriented, and ecotourism-oriented tendencies in tourist behavior. However, it was noted that, despite the frequent emphasis of these theoretical assumptions in the literature, the extent to which these assumptions were reflected in attitudes and behaviors in the context of ecotourism in the post-pandemic period has not yet been sufficiently investigated empirically.

Previous research has mostly addressed climate change perceptions and concerns or travel behaviors separately; however, the influence of personality traits on individuals’ perceptions of climate change, their emotional responses, and their tendencies toward sustainable tourism preferences such as ecotourism has not been sufficiently explored, particularly in the post-COVID-19 pandemic period. This study aims to fill this gap by examining how personality domains, within the framework of the Big-Five personality domains model, shape perceptions, concerns, and intentions to take action related to climate change and how they indirectly affect individuals’ intentions to engage in ecotourism. In doing so, it offers an approach that integrates personality psychology into the literature on ecotourism and climate change. In this study, in response to the aforementioned call [3], the relationships between the Big-Five personality domains and the general perceptions, concerns, intentions to act to cope with climate change and ecotourism intentions are tested through SEM, thereby contributing to the literature in both theoretical and practical terms.

2. Literature Review

In the literature review section of this study, relevant studies were examined under the headings of the relationship between ecotourism and climate change, environmental attitudes and behaviors in the context of the Big-Five personality domains, and the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on environmental attitudes.

2.1. Ecotourism and Climate Change

Climate change is emerging as a multifaceted threat with environmental, economic, social, and psychological dimensions that are increasingly affecting the globe [22]. Climate change, which gained international legal status with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in the early 1990s, is defined as follows [23]: “Climate change means a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods.” In recent years, due to its increasing impact, the Paris Agreement, which emerged as part of the joint fight against climate change, was adopted in 2015 with the participation of 196 countries and is the first comprehensive climate agreement with legal binding force at the global level. It aims to transition to clean energy, move toward low-carbon economies, and build a climate-resilient and socially just future in line with the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals [24]. In this context, the Paris Agreement and similar global mechanisms clearly reveal the multidimensional nature of the climate crisis, which threatens the common future of humanity [25]. Lastly, The Glasgow Declaration on Climate Action in Tourism [26], the first tourism-focused climate declaration aligned with the Paris Agreement, urges all tourism stakeholders to cut emissions by 50% by 2030 and achieve Net Zero as early as possible before 2050, aligning climate action plans with five strategic pathways: measurement, decarbonization, regeneration, collaboration, and finance.

Tourism, one of the world’s fastest growing industries, is highly sensitive to climate change due to its close relationship with the environment and climate [2]. Climate change and extreme weather events are having significant impacts on tourism destinations, events, businesses, and tourist behavior and will continue to be a critical factor directly affecting the attractiveness, accessibility, and sustainability of tourism destinations in the future [27]. This is because tourism is highly dependent on climatic and natural resources and is severely affected by climate change [28]. Therefore, understanding tourists’ perceptions and responses to the effects of climate change is critical for anticipating spatial and seasonal changes in tourism demand, as well as transformations in specific tourism markets and the competitive strength of destinations and businesses [29].

Climate change is significantly affecting the tourism sector on a global scale; at the same time, tourism-related greenhouse gas emissions are accelerating this process [30]. The climate plays a decisive role in a wide range of factors, from the physical environment of the area where tourism takes place to the timing of activities, transportation, and infrastructure conditions and to tourists’ psychological and physiological responses, and these elements also play a central role in tourism planning by influencing critical factors such as tourist satisfaction, health, safety, and destination choice [31]. Tourism is largely dependent on climatic and natural resources [32]. On the other hand, the tourism sector is both a contributor to climate change and a sector that is seriously affected by it [33]. It is anticipated that tourists are likely to change their destinations due to the emergence of climate risks, and that potential environmental damage will significantly reduce the preference for vacationing in affected destinations [4].

Climate change affects ecosystems at various levels, and environmental threats such as biodiversity loss, water scarcity, and ecosystem degradation threaten the future of ecology-based ecotourism [34]. Ecotourism is a small-scale alternative form of tourism that offers nature-based experiences, promotes education and awareness, and whose most important component is sustainable tourism [35,36,37]. A detailed definition of ecotourism is as follows [38] (p. 197): “an activity where the authorities, the tourism industry, tourists, and local people cooperate to make it possible for tourists to travel to genuine areas in order to admire, study, and enjoy nature and culture in a way that does not exploit the resource but contributes to sustainable development.”

2.2. The Big-Five Personality Domains and Environmental Attitudes

The importance of personality domains in explaining environmentally friendly attitudes and behaviors at the individual level has been emphasized in many studies in the literature, and the Big-Five personality domains model provides a frequently used theoretical framework in this context [39]. Additionally, this model demonstrates cross-cultural validity in understanding the behavioral manifestations of personality domains, offering a universal structural foundation [40]. The Five Factor Model of Personality (Big Five) is one of the most widely accepted frameworks for defining personality domains and is also known as OCEAN for short [41]. Comprising five core dimensions—Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness and Neuroticism (the opposite of Emotional Stability)—this model systematically classifies personality differences [42] (p. 85). The Big Five is structured around five basic dimensions to systematically understand individual differences and is summarized as follows [43]: Extraversion is defined by characteristics such as sociability, assertiveness, talkativeness, and effectiveness, while some researchers divide it into two components and interpret it as sociability and ambition. In terms of emotional stability(the opposite of Neuroticism) is associated with emotional instability such as anxiety, depression, anger, and insecurity. Agreeableness includes human tendencies such as trust in others, goodwill, forgiveness, gentleness, and cooperation. Conscientiousness encompasses characteristics such as planning, organizing, and being responsible, hardworking, and goal-oriented, as well as perseverance and achievement orientation. Finally, Openness to Experience is characterized by intellectual curiosity, cultural interest, artistic sensitivity, and openness to new experiences and sometimes reflects intelligence or readiness to learn.

One of the most widely used measurement tools in the literature is the Trait Descriptive Adjectives (TDA) inventory developed by Goldberg [44], which consists of 100 descriptive adjectives and is designed to assess the entirety of personality domains defined by the Five Factor Personality Theory. On the other hand, short scales used to measure personality domains (e.g., Ten-Item Personality Inventory: TIPI) are effective tools, particularly in field research where time constraints are a factor. Gosling, Rentfrow, and Swann Jr. [45] demonstrated that the Big-Five dimensions (Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness and Emotional Stability) can be measured validly and reliably using 10-item short forms. In particular, TIPI and similar short scales can be effectively used in multivariate models and large-scale studies, establishing meaningful relationships with external variables such as environmental attitudes [45].

The first study to test pre-pandemic ecotourism behaviors (i.e., environmentally responsible actions taken by tourists during travel) was Kvasova’s study [46], using the Big-Five personality domains, which found that the personality dimensions of Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, and Neuroticism (or Emotional Stability) have significant effects on eco-friendly tourist behaviors. In particular, Agreeableness emerged as the strongest determinant, while Openness to Experience, contrary to expectations, did not show a significant relationship. The effects of these five dimensions in the context of tourism have also been increasingly studied. Huang, Gursoy, and Xu [21] revealed that Extraversion increases personal relevance and familiarity in tourism, while Neuroticism has a weak but positive effect on familiarity through perceived risk, demonstrating that personality domains are decisive in tourists’ information and decision-making processes. Jani and Han’s study [47] found that the Big-Five personality dimensions, particularly Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Emotional Stability, significantly affect hotel accommodation satisfaction. Another study Kovačić et al. [48] revealed that tourists’ Big-Five personality domains (particularly Openness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness) significantly influenced their perceptions of destination personality and image, which in turn shaped their travel behavior by reflecting on their preferred activities at the destination. On the other hand, Dao et al. [49] found that Extraversion, Openness, and Agreeableness consistently positively influenced tourists’ co-production behaviors before, during, and after their trips; Conscientiousness was only effective during the trip, while Neuroticism played a negative role (or Emotional Stability plays a positive role) at this stage. Thus, personality domains were shown to be fundamental psychological factors that determine how tourists participate in the experience production process. In a study conducted by Coudounaris et al. [50], the effects of the Big-Five personality domains on memorable tourist experiences and revisit intentions were examined, and it was found that personality domains had a limited effect on MTE and revisit intention, with only Emotional Stability (or Neuroticism) and Openness having significant relationships with the refreshment dimension. This finding demonstrates that personality domains influence environmental behavior in the context of tourist experiences and highlights the importance of designing ecotourism policies that take individual differences into account.

Environmental concern, which includes climate change, expresses an individual’s awareness and sensitivity toward environmental protection and is meaningfully and positively related to ecotourism intentions [51] (p. 1144). It has been determined that individuals with strong environmental concerns reflect these values in their purchasing decisions and are more inclined to choose products with environmental labels [52]. In this context, tourists who are concerned about environmental protection, climate change, and environmental impacts are more likely to be interested in a destination with local cultural and environmental sensitivity. Therefore, they have higher intentions to experience ecotourism and revisit [53] (p. 1867).

In the literature, the Big-Five personality domains are seen to provide an important framework for understanding environmental concerns. It is known that personality domains have a positive and significant effect on environmental concern [54]. Hirsh’s study [55] revealed that the domains most strongly associated with environmental concern within the Big-Five personality domains model are Agreeableness and Openness to Experience; these individuals are empathetic, open to new experiences, and sensitive to environmental values. Additionally, it has been determined that individuals with high levels of Conscientiousness adhere more to environmentally friendly norms, while those with high levels of Neuroticism (or low levels of Emotional Stability) develop greater anxiety toward environmental threats. On the other hand, no significant relationship was found between Extraversion and environmental attitudes. In the context of climate change, the Openness to Experience dimension among the Big-Five personality domains show the strongest relationship with positive attitudes toward climate change. It has been found that individuals with high levels of Openness are more likely to engage in environmentally friendly behaviors [56].

Research on the psychological determinants of environmental attitudes and sustainable behaviors has revealed that individuals’ personality domains play an important role in these processes. Among these personality domains, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, and Openness to Experience have been found to be particularly significant. Milfont and Sibley [57] demonstrated that the domain of Agreeableness is one of the strongest psychological determinants of environmental sensitivity, primarily through empathy, helpfulness, and a focus on social benefit. Conscientiousness is a personality domain that emphasizes environmental responsibility behaviors in the context of long-term planning, self-discipline, and conformity to social norms. Openness to experience establishes a link among environmental awareness and artistic sensitivity, openness to universal values, and intellectual curiosity, enabling individuals to develop a more flexible and inclusive attitude toward nature. These findings suggest that personality-based approaches should be considered not only at the individual level but also in the development of sustainable tourism policies, including ecotourism.

The reason for choosing the Big-Five personality domains model in this study is that it has strong empirical foundations, its validity has been repeatedly demonstrated across different cultures, and it is widely used in both environmental and tourism research. Unlike typology-based models such as the Myers–Briggs Type Indicator, the Big-Five model adopts a dimensional approach to personality traits, allowing for a more nuanced examination of individual differences. Compared to newer models like HEXACO, the Big-Five model has undergone much more extensive validity testing and has proven to have high explanatory power in areas such as pro-environmental behavior, travel preferences, and climate change perception [20,58,59,60]. As also noted by Gibbon and Douglas [59], who used the Big-Five model in their study, personality domains represent individuals’ most fundamental and situationally stable characteristics that predict attitudes and behaviors. The model’s five-factor structure offers a theoretically and empirically robust basis for explaining individuals’ perceptions of and responses to complex issues such as climate change, ecotourism, and sustainability.

2.3. Development of the Research Model

In the post-pandemic period, consumer behavior in the tourism sector has undergone significant changes [61]. It is widely acknowledged that the pandemic has not only transformed the tourism sector but also altered individuals’ sensitivity to environmental crises. Gössling, Scott, and Hall [62] (p. 14) highlight the structural similarities between this crisis and climate change, noting that environmental threats are now perceived as concrete and increasingly systemic risks rather than abstract concepts. It is noteworthy that with the increase in environmental concerns of individuals and the development of environmentally friendly behaviors, interest in more sustainable travel alternatives and therefore ecotourism has also increased [9,10,11,12,13]. Individuals’ travel behaviors during extraordinary periods such as COVID-19 are shaped not only by environmental factors but also by personality domains.

Agreeableness, which is associated with empathy, trust, and cooperation, has been reported to be linked to environmentally friendly behaviors and the intention to engage in ecotourism. Agreeable individuals are more likely to be concerned about the preservation and protection of natural environments, and based on this concern, they are more inclined to prefer tourism types that prioritize sustainability and have a lower carbon footprint [60,63]. Based on the literature, it has been proposed that Agreeableness is positively associated with both ecotourism intention and variables related to climate change.

In the literature, emotional stability—the opposite of Neuroticism—refers to an individual’s capacity to maintain emotional balance, make rational decisions, and exhibit emotionally stable behavior in the face of negative situations. The findings on how emotional stability influences ecotourism intention and pro-environmental attitudes are mixed. For instance, Kvasova [46] and Verma et al. [61] found that Neuroticism is significantly and positively associated with tourists’ environmentally friendly behaviors/intentions. On the other hand, Rafiq, Adil, and Wu [20], Milfont and Sibley [57], and Poškus [64] indicated a negative relationship between Neuroticism and pro-environmental behaviors/intentions. Based on these findings, it has been proposed that emotional stability (the inverse of Neuroticism) is negatively associated with variables related to climate change and positively associated with the ecotourism intention.

Extraversion, which reflects sociability and an interest in group activities, can be associated with the enjoyment of interpersonal interactions that come with shared experiences in nature and a tendency toward group-based ecotourism activities [65]. Studies suggest that extraverted individuals are more likely to have a higher ecotourism intention [20,46,61,66]. On the other hand, Extraversion, a personality trait generally associated with sociability, assertiveness, experiencing positive emotions, and a tendency to enjoy the present moment, may reduce individuals’ perception of climate change as a personal or urgent threat [67]. Therefore, extraverted individuals are expected to have lower levels of general perceptions and concern regarding climate change. Moreover, the optimism and emotional resilience typically displayed by extraverted individuals may serve as a psychological buffer against distressing messages such as those related to climate change. Nevertheless, due to their high energy levels, desire for social interaction, and inclination toward group-based activities, these individuals may score high in terms of their intention to take environmental action [68]. In this context, their intention to act may be driven more by the behavioral activation and social participation tendencies inherent in Extraversion, rather than by direct concern. Based on this, the present study proposes that Extraversion is negatively associated with perceptions and concerns about climate change, while being positively associated with the intentions to act to cope with climate change and ecotourism intentions.

Conscientiousness is characterized by responsibility, attentiveness, care, organization, and self-discipline. Conscientious individuals are generally more aware of the contributions of ecotourism to sustainability and its environmental impacts, possess a stronger sense of responsibility, and are known to show greater care both regarding issues related to climate change and in choosing more sustainable forms of tourism [60,69]. Accordingly, it is proposed in the model that Conscientiousness is positively associated with both climate change-related variables and the intention to engage in ecotourism.

Lastly, Openness to Experience, which is characterized by curiosity and a desire for novel experiences, is consistently associated with environmentally friendly behaviors and the intention to participate in ecotourism [55,57]. Individuals with high levels of Openness are more likely to seek out nature-based experiences and to have a stronger intention to engage in ecotourism. Likewise, Talwar et al. [66] found that Openness to Experience emerged as the most influential factor on travel intentions in the post-pandemic period. From this point of view, it has been proposed that Openness to Experience is positively associated with both ecotourism intention and variables related to climate change.

Ecotourism, as a form of tourism based on interaction with nature and prioritizing environmental sensitivity and sustainability, reflects individuals’ attitudes toward environmental values and their level of awareness. In this context, individuals’ intentions toward ecotourism may not only indicate a preference for a specific type of travel but also reflect awareness of global environmental issues such as climate change, emotional sensitivity, and a sense of responsibility. Indeed, previous studies support this perspective [3,20,70,71,72]. Based on this, it is proposed that ecotourism intention is related to general perceptions of climate change, concerns, and the intentions to act to cope with climate change.

The relevant literature indicates that individuals’ perceptions of, concerns about, intentions to act on climate change, and intentions to engage in ecotourism can be shaped by their personality traits. While there are studies in the literature that examine personality traits in relation to climate change perceptions and concerns separately and others that investigate them in relation to ecotourism intention, no study has been found that addresses these topics together and explores the relationships between them. Based on this gap, the model of the present study was designed and tested.

3. Materials and Methods

The aim of this study is to examine the relationship between tourists’ personality domains and their general perspectives on climate change, concerns about climate change, and intentions to cope with climate change, as well as how ecotourism intention mediates this relationship. In this regard, a quantitative research method was adopted to conduct the study.

3.1. The Research Model

In line with the literature review, seven main hypotheses were created based on the purpose of the study. Before examining the mediating role of the variable “ecotourism intention”, the direct effects of “tourists’ personality domains” (Agreeableness, Emotional Stability, Extraversion, Conscientiousness, Openness to Experience) on “general perspectives of climate change,” “concerns about climate change,” and “intentions to act to cope with climate change” were investigated. Subsequently, the mediating role of “ecotourism intention” in these relationships was examined. Accordingly, the research model, which is presented in Figure 1 below, was developed.

Considering the research model and objectives, seven main hypotheses were formed and presented as follows.

H1: 

There is a significant relationship between the dimensions of the Big-Five personality domains and the general perceptions of climate change.

H1a: 

Agreeableness is positively associated with the general perceptions of climate change.

H1b: 

Emotional stability is negatively associated with the general perceptions of climate change.

H1c: 

Extraversion is negatively associated with the general perceptions of climate change.

H1d: 

Conscientiousness is positively associated with the general perceptions of climate change.

H1e: 

Openness to Experience is positively associated with the general perceptions of climate change.

H2: 

There is a significant relationship between the dimensions of the Big-Five personality domains and the concerns about climate change.

H2a: 

Agreeableness is positively associated with the concerns about climate change.

H2b: 

Emotional stability is negatively associated with the concerns about climate change.

H2c: 

Extraversion is negatively associated with the concerns about climate change.

H2d: 

Conscientiousness is positively associated with the concerns about climate change.

H2e: 

Openness to Experience is positively associated with the concerns about climate change.

H3: 

There is a significant relationship between the dimensions of the Big-Five personality domains and the intentions to act to cope with climate change.

H3a: 

Agreeableness is positively associated with the intentions to act to cope with climate change.

H3b: 

Emotional stability is negatively associated with the intentions to act to cope with climate change.

H3c: 

Extraversion is positively associated with the intentions to act to cope with climate change.

H3d: 

Conscientiousness is positively associated with the intentions to act to cope with climate change.

H3e: 

Openness to Experience is positively associated with the intentions to act to cope with climate change.

H4: 

There is a significant relationship between the dimensions of the Big-Five personality domains and the ecotourism intention.

H4a: 

Agreeableness is positively associated with the ecotourism intention.

H4b: 

Emotional stability is positively associated with the ecotourism intention.

H4c: 

Extraversion is positively associated with the ecotourism intention.

H4d: 

Conscientiousness is positively associated with the ecotourism intention.

H4e: 

Openness to Experience is positively associated with the ecotourism intention.

H5: 

There is a significant relationship between the ecotourism intention and the general perceptions of climate change.

H6: 

There is a significant relationship between the ecotourism intention and the concerns about climate change.

H7: 

There is a significant relationship between the ecotourism intention and the intentions to act to cope with climate change.

3.2. Data Collection Tool

The data collection tool used in the research consists of two main sections. The first section includes items compiled from the relevant literature to measure the latent variables of tourists’ personality domains, general perspectives of climate change, concerns about climate change, intentions to act to cope with climate change, and ecotourism intentions. This part was developed in line with established scales from previous research to ensure high content validity. Personality domains were measured by making use of the scale presented by Gosling, Rentfrow, and Swann Jr. [45]. Within the scope of the Big-Five personality domains model, a 10-item scale was used, in which each personality domain was measured with two items, one linear and the other reverse coded. On the other hand, Atzeni, Kim, Chiappa, and Wassler’s study [3] was used to measure general perspectives of climate change (13 items), concerns about climate change (3 items), and intentions to act to cope with climate change (3 items). Lastly, Lu, Gursoy, and Chiappa’s [73] study was utilized to measure ecotourism intention. It consists of 4 items. All items in the research model were measured with a five-point Likert-type scale.

The second section contains questions designed to determine the demographic characteristics of the participants. This section presents the demographic information of the participants, including age, gender, marital status, education level, income level, and occupation. It also examines how the participants organized their trips, the average length of their trips, and their preferred nature-based tourism activities.

3.3. Population and Sample

The target population of the study consists of domestic tourists who participated in hiking tours at ecotourism destinations in Turkey in 2024. Since the participants are Turkish, the data collection tool (questionnaire form) was translated from English to Turkish using the back-translation method. Three individuals were involved in the back-translation process. These individuals were selected based on their graduation from departments of English language and literature and their experience of teaching for at least one year in faculties of tourism. Subsequently, the questionnaire was reviewed by four professors specialized in tourism guidance and tourism management, and minor revisions were made to ensure the consistency of the content. Finally, the comprehensibility of the questionnaire was tested with two individuals who actively engage in hiking at ecotourism destinations. In this way, the measurement tool was ensured to be compatible both with the Turkish language and with the tourist profile participating in hiking tours in Turkey.

Before conducting the field research, the required sample size for the study was calculated. For this purpose, both the G*Power 3.1.9.7 software and the a-priori sample size calculator for Structural Equation Models developed by Soper [74], based on the studies of Cohen [75] and Westland [76], were utilized. As stated above, the study includes five latent variables and 33 observed variables. Considering the number of latent and observed variables, the required sample size according to Soper’s [74] tool was determined to be 308 individuals (a priori analysis; anticipated effect size: 0.3 (RMSEA = 0.05); desired statistical power level: 0.8 (β = 0.20) [44]). When analyzed through the G*Power software, which is commonly used to calculate statistical power, and considering the relevant number of variables (a priori analysis; F test—linear multiple regression, effect size (f²) = 0.15; significance level = 0.05; statistical power = 0.95 [75]), the minimum required sample size was found to be 138 participants. In addition to these calculations, the literature also suggests that the sample size in social sciences should typically range between 300 and 400 participants [77,78]. As explained above, the minimum required sample size for the variables related to different approaches was calculated [74,75,76], and in addition, the literature regarding sample size [77,78] was taken into consideration. Based on this, it was aimed to reach a number of participants exceeding the minimum sample size. Further, taking into account the possibility of potential data losses (such as inaccurate or incomplete questionnaires), it was decided to collect data from 400 to 450 individuals.

After determining the minimum required sample size, within the scope of the study, individuals participating in hiking tours at ecotourism destinations in Turkey were reached through professional tourist guides, and data were collected using the convenience sampling method. A QR code containing the online questionnaire form was distributed to the professional tourist guides, and they were requested to collect data on a voluntary basis from individuals participating in their tours. Eventually, a total of 425 people were reached in the survey conducted between September and December 2024. Sixteen questionnaires which were determined to be filled incompletely were excluded from the study, and as a result 409 questionnaire forms were accepted for analysis.

3.4. Data Analysis

Within the scope of the study, descriptive statistics were first obtained. Then, the fit of the measurement model was determined using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), and the reliability and validity of the scale were tested.

Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to analyze the correlations between latent constructs and to test the research model. The model fit was evaluated through SEM, and the hypotheses developed within the study were tested. In addition, the mediating role of ecotourism intention was assessed based on the results of the model. CFA was conducted using SPSS 24 software, while SEM was performed using AMOS 24.

4. Results

In this section, firstly descriptive statistics regarding the sample are given. Then, we present the reliability and validity values obtained through CFA. Finally, the hypothesis tests and results regarding the mediating role after SEM are conveyed.

4.1. Descriptive Statistics

In this study, data obtained from 409 people were examined. During the data collection process, surveys were collected from 425 people, but 16 surveys with incomplete and/or incorrect answers were excluded from the study. The study examined various aspects of the participants, such as age, gender, marital status, education level, income level, and occupation. It also addressed how the participants organized their trips and the average length of their stays.

As seen in

Table 1. Descriptive statistics of the sample.

	Category	Frequency	Percentage (%)
Gender	Female	254	62.1%
	Male	155	37.9%
Marital Status	Married	179	43.8%
	Single	230	56.2%
Age	Under 25 years	24	5.9%
	25–35 years	80	19.6%
	36–45 years	88	21.5%
	46–55 years	112	27.4%
	56–65 years	105	25.7%
Education Status	High school	35	8.6%
	Associate degree	39	9.5%
	Bachelor’s degree	209	51.1%
	Master’s degree	88	21.5%
	Doctorate	38	9.3%
Monthly Income	Minimum wage or below (440 USD or less)	47	11.5%
	440–1030 USD	120	29.3%
	1030–1550 USD	134	32.8%
	1550–2060 USD	51	12.5%
	2060 USD or more	57	13.9%
Profession	Student	29	7.1%
	Unemployed	16	3.9%
	Entrepreneur	56	13.7%
	Public sector	122	29.8%
	Private sector	88	21.5%
	Retired	98	24.0%
Tour Organization	I plan and manage my own schedule	212	51.8%
	I join programs organized by friends and/or clubs	149	36.4%
	I receive professional support from travel agencies	33	8.1%
	All of the above	15	3.7%
Average Length of Stay	Day trip	45	11.0%
	1–3 nights	170	41.6%
	4–6 nights	152	37.2%
	7 nights or more	42	10.3%

below, it was observed that 254 individuals (62.1%) were female and 155 individuals (37.9%) were male; 179 individuals (43.8%) were married, while 230 individuals (56.2%) were single. Additionally, it was found that 24 individuals (5.9%) were under the age of 25, 80 individuals (19.6%) were between 25 and 35 years old, 88 individuals (21.5%) were between 36 and 45 years old, 112 individuals (27.4%) were between 46 and 55 years old, and 105 individuals (25.7%) were between 56 and 65 years old. Among the participants, 35 individuals (8.6%) had completed high school, 39 (9.5%) had an associate degree, 209 (51.1%) held a bachelor’s degree, 88 (21.5%) had a master’s degree, and 38 (3.8%) had earned a doctorate. When the monthly income distribution was examined, it was observed that 47 individuals had an income equal to or below the minimum wage in Turkey (440 USD or less), 120 individuals (29.3%) earned between 440 and 1030 USD, 134 individuals (32.8%) earned between 1030 and 1550 USD, 51 individuals (12.5%) earned between 1550 and 2060 USD, and 57 individuals (13.9%) had a monthly income of 2060 USD or more. Regarding participants’ professions, 29 individuals (7.1%) were students, 16 (3.9%) were unemployed, 56 (13.7%) were self-employed, 122 (29.8%) worked in the public sector, 88 (21.5%) worked in the private sector, and 98 (24.0%) were retired.

In addition, as seen in Table 1, when examining how participants organized their attendance at relevant tours, it was found that 212 individuals (51.8%) answered “I plan and manage my own schedule,” 149 individuals (36.4%) stated “I join programs organized by friends and/or clubs,” 33 individuals (8.1%) said “I receive professional support from travel agencies,” and 15 individuals (3.7%) responded “all of the above.” Lastly, when it came to the average length of stay, 45 individuals (11.0%) took day trips, 170 individuals (41.6%) stayed for 1–3 nights, 152 individuals (37.2%) stayed for 4–6 nights, and 42 individuals (10.3%) stayed for 7 nights or more.

4.2. Measurement Model

In this section, information regarding the CFA results is presented.

4.2.1. Reliability

In order to test the reliability of the scale, the average Cronbach’s Alpha (α) values were calculated for all items collectively and for each construct individually. It is widely accepted that Cronbach’s Alpha should be greater than 0.70 for a scale to be considered reliable [79]. When examining the value ranges used to interpret the reliability of a scale, it is considered that 0.60 ≤ α < 0.80 indicates acceptable reliability, while 0.80 ≤ α < 1.00 indicates high reliability [80]. In this study, the Cronbach’s α coefficient for all items was found to be 0.93. Additionally, the Cronbach’s α coefficients for general perspectives of climate change, concerns about climate change, intentions to act to cope with climate change, ecotourism intention, and personality domains were calculated as 0.91, 0.93, 0.92, 0.87, and 0.75 respectively. Based on these results, it was concluded that the constructs are reliable.

4.2.2. Normality

As part of the study, the normality of the dataset was examined, and it was observed that the result of the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test was p > 0.05, and the skewness and kurtosis coefficients fell within the range of −2 to +2. Accordingly, it was concluded that the data exhibited a normal distribution [81,82], and the maximum likelihood (ML) was chosen as the estimation method for DFA. The reason for this is that ML is the most commonly used estimation method for structures consisting of continuous data demonstrating a normal distribution [83].

Furthermore, to assess the suitability of the data for factor analysis, the Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) test and Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity were examined. A review of the literature indicates that the KMO value should range between 0 and 1; if it is greater than 0.5, the data are considered suitable for factor analysis, and a value above 0.8 indicates excellent suitability [84,85,86]. For suitability in factor analysis, the result of Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity is expected to be p < 0.05. In this study, the KMO value was found to be 0.94, and the result of Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity was p < 0.05 (χ²= 7182; df = 253; p < 0.001), thus confirming the data’s suitability for factor analysis.

4.2.3. Model Fit Indices

Through the fit indices calculated within the scope of the DFA, it was observed that the model falls within acceptable limits [79,87,88,89,90]. The model’s fit indices are listed as follows: χ²/df = 575/146 = 3.94 < 5.00; comparative fit index (CFI) = 0.93 > 0.90; root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) = 0.06 < 0.08; standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) = 0.04 < 0.10; normed fit index (NFI) = 0.96 > 0.90; non-normed fit index (NNFI) = 0.96 > 0.95).

4.2.4. Convergent Validity and Discriminant Validity

For convergent validity, composite reliability (CR) and average variance extracted (AVE) values are taken into consideration. In this regard, it is recommended that the AVE value should be greater than 0.50, and the CR value should be greater than 0.70 [79,91,92]. Additionally, it is emphasized that composite reliability should be greater than the average variance extracted (CR > AVE) [47,61]. The results regarding the convergent validity of the study are presented in

Table 2. Convergent validity: CR and AVE values.

Factor Loads		CR	AVE
Factor 1: GPERC		0.928	0.500
GPERC1	0.67
GPERC2	0.63
GPERC3	0.76
GPERC4	0.76
GPERC5	0.79
GPERC6	0.69
GPERC7	0.70
GPERC8	0.71
GPERC9	0.84
GPERC10	0.62
GPERC11	0.72
GPERC12	0.65
GPERC13	0.62
Factor 2: CONC		0.930	0.816
CONC1	0.89
CONC2	0.90
CONC3	0.92
Factor 3: ACT		0.930	0.817
ACT1	0.89
ACT2	0.94
ACT3	0.88
Factor 4: ECOINT		0.899	0.691
ECOINT1	0.85
ECOINT2	0.72
ECOINT3	0.94
ECOINT4	0.80
Factor 5: PDs		0.957	0.692
PDs1	0.84	PD1 (CR: 0.839; AVE: 0.72)
PDs2	0.86
PDs3	0.86	PD2 (CR: 0.890; AVE: 0.802)
PDs4	0.93
PDs5	0.78	PD3 (CR: 0.787; AVE: 0.649)
PDs6	0.83
PDs7	0.71	PD4 (CR: 0.740; AVE: 0.588)
PDs8	0.82
PDs9	0.88	PD5 (CR: 0.823; AVE: 0.699)
PDs10	0.79

Note: CR: Composite reliability, AVE: Average variance extracted, GPERC: General perspectives of climate change, CONC: Concerns about climate change, ACT: Intentions to act to cope with climate change, ECOINT: Ecotourism intention, PDs: Personality domains; PD1: Openness to Experience, PD2: Agreeableness, PD3: Consciousness, PD4: Emotional Stability, PD5: Extraversion.

below.

When Table 2 is examined, it is observed that in all factors of the scale, the CR values are greater than 0.70, the AVE values are greater than 0.50, and the condition CR > AVE is met for each factor. Based on this, it can be concluded that the scale demonstrates convergent validity.

To establish discriminant validity, according to the criterion of Fornell and Larcker [93], the square root of the average variance extracted (AVE) for each factor must be greater than the correlation values between the factors. Accordingly, the results of the analysis conducted based on the Fornell and Larcker criterion are presented in

Table 3. Discriminant validity: Fornell and Larcker criterion.

Constructs	GPERC	CONC	ACT	ECOINT	PDs
GPERC	0.707
CONC	0.696	0.903
ACT	0.668	0.683	0.904
ECOINT	0.270	0.241	0.285	0.831
PDs	0.161	0.196	0.168	0.170	0.832
AVE	0.500	0.816	0.817	0.691	0.692

Note: AVE: Average variance extracted. The diagonal elements marked in bold are the square root of the AVE, and the elements outside the diagonal (not marked in bold) are the correlations between constructs.

below.

When Table 3 is examined, it is observed that the square root of the AVE for each factor is higher than its correlation values with other factors. Based on the results presented in the table, it can be concluded that the scale also demonstrates discriminant validity.

4.3. Structural Model

In this study, the effects of “personality domains (PDs)” on “general perspectives of climate change (GPERC)”, “concerns about climate change (CONC)”, and the “intentions to act to cope with climate change (ACT)” were examined. In addition, “ecotourism intention (ECOINT)” was used as a mediating variable. Thus, the results of the structural equation model developed in this context are presented in this section.

4.3.1. SEM Model Fit Indices

Considering the indices calculated for the model, it is observed that the model generally falls within the acceptable range [79,87,88,89,90]. The model’s fit indices are listed as follows: χ²/df = 3.19 < 5.00; comparative fit index (CFI) = 0.91 > 0.90; root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) = 0.07 < 0.08; standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) = 0.05 < 0.10; normed fit index (NFI) = 0.92 > 0.90; non-normed fit index (NNFI) = 0.96 > 0.95; PRATIO = 0.88 > 0.85; IFI = 0.91 > 0.90).

4.3.2. Path Diagram

The path diagram of the model proposed in the study is presented in Figure 2 below.

Having presented the model fit indices and path diagram, information on the hypothesis test results and the results of the mediation effect are provided.

4.3.3. Hypothesis Test

The results of the hypothesis test for the proposed model in the study are given in

Table 4. Results of the hypothesis test.

Constructs	Confirmed	β	t-Value
H1
H1a	Yes	2.876	5.75 ***
H1b	Yes	−1.494	−2.99 ***
H1c	Yes	−4.79	−9.58 ***
H1d	Yes	7.996	15.99 ***
H1e	No	−0.985	−1.97 **
H2
H2a	No	−2.700	−5.4 NS
H2b	Yes	−1.338	−2.68 ***
H2c	Yes	−4.416	−8.83 ***
H2d	Yes	7.272	14.54 ***
H2e	Yes	1.784	2.97 ***
H3
H3a	Yes	2.488	4.98 ***
H3b	Yes	−1.207	−2.41 **
H3c	Yes	4.081	8.16 ***
H3d	Yes	6.759	13.52 ***
H3e	No	−0.680	−1.36 NS
H4
H4a	Yes	1.339	2.68 ***
H4b	Yes	1.764	2.53 **
H4c	Yes	2.036	4.07 ***
H4d	Yes	3.544	7.09 ***
H4e	Yes	1.187	2.37 **
H5-H6-H7
H5	Yes	2.321	4.64 ***
H6	Yes	2.283	4.56 ***
H7	No	0.242	0.48 NS

Note: *** p < 0.01 (|t| > 2.58), ** p < 0.05 (|t| >1.96), t ^NS: t value is not significant.

.

H1 examines the relationship between the Big-Five personality domains and general perceptions of climate change. The results related to H1 can be summarized as follows: Agreeableness (β = 2.88, t = 5.75), Emotional Stability (β = −1.49, t = −2.99), Extraversion (β = −4.79, t = −9.58), and Conscientiousness (β = 8.00, t = 15.99) had significant effects in expected directions. Contrary to the developed hypothesis, Openness to Experience showed a negative relationship with the general perceptions of climate change (β = −0.985, t = −1.97). In other words, H1e is rejected, and the other sub-hypotheses (H1a–H1d) are accepted.

H2 examines the relationship between the Big-Five personality domains and concerns about climate change. The results obtained within the scope of this hypothesis are as follows: Emotional Stability (β = −1.34, t = −2.68), Extraversion (β = −4.42, t = −8.83), Conscientiousness (β = 7.27, t = 14.54), and Openness to Experience (β = 1.78, t = 2.97) were significant. Agreeableness had a significant negative effect (β = −2.70, t = −5.40), contrary to the hypothesis. In other words, H2a is rejected while the other sub-hypotheses (H2b–H2e) are accepted.

The relationship between the Big-Five personality domains and intentions to act to cope with climate change is examined by H3. The results of the sub-hypotheses generated within the scope of H3 are as follows: Agreeableness (β = 2.49, t = 4.98), Emotional Stability (β = −1.21, t = −2.41), Extraversion (β = 4.08, t = 8.16), and Conscientiousness (β = 6.76, t = 13.52) had significant effects. Openness to Experience was not significant (β = −0,68, t = −1.36). In other words, H3e is rejected, and the other sub-hypotheses (H3a–H3d) are accepted.

The relationship between the Big-Five personality domains and ecotourism intention is examined by H4. All sub-hypotheses related to H4 are accepted. All personality domains significantly predicted ecotourism intention: Agreeableness (β = 1.34, t = 2.68), Emotional Stability (β = 1.76, t = 2.53), Extraversion (β = 2.04, t = 4.07), Conscientiousness (β = 3.54, t = 7.09), and Openness to Experience (β = 1.19, t = 3.37).

H5, H6, and H7 examined the effects of ecotourism intention on general perceptions of climate change, concerns about climate change, and intentions to act to cope with climate change, respectively. Ecotourism intention significantly predicted general perceptions of climate change (β = 2.32, t = 4.64) and concerns about climate change (β = 2.28, t = 4.56). However, it did not predict intentions to act to cope with climate change (β = 0.24, t = 0.48, p > 0.05). While H5 and H6 are accepted, H7 is rejected.

Overall, the structural equation model revealed that many of the hypothesized relationships were supported. The Big-Five personality dimensions had significant predictive effects on individuals’ general perceptions of climate change, concerns about climate change, intentions to act to cope with climate change, and ecotourism intentions in the expected directions in most cases. In particular, Conscientiousness emerged as a strong positive predictor across all climate-related outcomes. Agreeableness and Extraversion exhibited mixed effects (enhancing some outcomes while reducing others), and Emotional Stability (the inverse of Neuroticism) was associated with lower perceived threat and concern about climate change, as expected, but it was positively related to ecotourism intention. Openness to Experience was found to be related only to concerns about climate change and ecotourism intention. It was found that there was a significant relationship between ecotourism intention and all five personality domains. Finally, individuals’ ecotourism intentions were positively linked to their general perceptions of climate change and their level of concern about climate change. However, ecotourism intention did not significantly predict intentions to act to cope with climate change.

4.3.4. The Mediating Role

The mediating role of ecotourism intention was examined in the relationships between personality domains and climate change-related outcomes. The Sobel test was used when evaluating this role [94,95,96].

As can be seen in

Table 5. Results of the Sobel Test.

Path	Sobel z	p-Value	Role
PDs  →  ECOINT  →  GPERC
Agreeableness → ECOINT → GPERC	2.320	0.020 *	Yes
Emotional Stability → ECOINT → GPERC	2.221	0.026 *	Yes
Extraversion → ECOINT → GPERC	3.059	0.002 *	Yes
Conscientiousness → ECOINT → GPERC	3.882	0.000 *	Yes
Openness to Experience → ECOINT → GPERC	2.110	0.034 *	Yes
PDs → ECOINT → CONC
Agreeableness → ECOINT → CONC	2.310	0.020 *	Yes
Emotional Stability → ECOINT → CONC	2.212	0.026 *	Yes
Extraversion → ECOINT → CONC	3.036	0.002 *	Yes
Conscientiousness → ECOINT → CONC	3.835	0.000 *	Yes
Openness to Experience → ECOINT → CONC	2.103	0.035 *	Yes
PDs → ECOINT → ACT
Agreeableness → ECOINT → ACT	0.472	0.636 **	No
Emotional Stability → ECOINT → ACT	0.471	0.637 **	No
Extraversion → ECOINT → ACT	0.476	0.633 **	No
Conscientiousness → ECOINT → ACT	0.478	0.631 **	No
Openness to Experience → ECOINT → ACT	0.470	0.637 **	No

Note: * p < 0.05: there is a mediation effect; ** p > 0.05: no mediation effect; PDs: personality domains, ECOINT: ecotourism intention, GPERC: general perceptions of climate change, CONC: concerns about climate change, ACT: intentions to act to cope with climate change.

, the results of the Sobel test indicate that all personality dimensions have statistically significant indirect effects on general perceptions of climate change through ecotourism intention (z = 2.11–3.88; p < 0.05). These findings reveal that the variables of Agreeableness, Emotional Stability, Extraversion, Conscientiousness, and Openness to Experience affect individuals’ general perceptions of climate change through their ecotourism intentions. In particular, the observed z and p values for the Conscientiousness and Extraversion variables suggest that this mediation effect is strong. Similarly, the indirect effects of personality dimensions on concerns about climate change were also found to be significant (z = 2.10–3.83; p < 0.05). ecotourism intention functions as a significant mediating variable in these relationships. The observed significant mediation effects across all personality dimensions indicate that individuals’ concerns about climate change are indirectly shaped by their personality traits. Similar to the findings related to general perceptions of climate change, considering the z and p values, the mediating role of the personality traits Conscientiousness and Extraversion appears to be stronger. However, no significant indirect effects of personality dimensions on intentions to act to cope with climate change through ecotourism intentions were found (z ≈ 0.47; p > 0.63). This result indicates that individuals’ intentions to take action to cope with climate change develop independently of their personality traits, and the ecotourism intention variable does not play a statistically significant mediating role in this relationship.

The findings of the study revealed that personality domains have indirect effects on individuals’ general perceptions of and concerns about climate change through their ecotourism intentions. This indicates that individuals’ intentions toward ecotourism play a role in shaping their environmental awareness and emotional responses. In other words, personality domains influence general perceptions and concerns about climate change via ecotourism intentions. However, the same mediating relationship was not supported in terms of intentions to act to cope with climate change—ecotourism intention does not appear to play a significant mediating role in shaping individuals’ behavioral intentions to act against climate change. This suggests that although ecotourism intention is effective on cognitive and emotional levels, it remains limited in translating into actual behavioral intentions.

5. Discussion

In this study, the relationships between the Five Factor Personality Domains and perceptions, concerns, intention to cope, and intention to participate in ecotourism in relation to climate change were analyzed using SEM. According to the findings, Conscientiousness emerged as a strong and positive predictor of all climate-related outcomes, while Agreeableness and Extraversion showed positive effects on some variables and negative effects on others. Emotional Stability, as expected, showed a negative relationship with general perception and concern level and a positive relationship with ecotourism intention. Openness to Experience showed a significant relationship only with climate change concern and ecotourism intention. A significant relationship was found between all personality domains and ecotourism intention.

In addition, it was observed that all personality domains have an indirect effect on general perceptions of climate change and concerns about climate change through ecotourism intention. The effects of Conscientiousness and Extraversion were found to be stronger than those of the other domains. However, personality domains did not exhibit a statistically significant mediating effect on intentions to act to cope with climate change through ecotourism intention.

Overall, the findings of this study conducted in Turkey indicate that personality domains have both direct and indirect (through ecotourism intentions) effects on perceptions and concerns about climate change, but they only have direct effects on intentions to act to cope with climate change. This study is limited to tourists participating in ecotourism tours in Turkey; therefore, it is considered important for future research to apply the proposed model in different cultural contexts and to conduct cross-cultural comparisons.

This study directly responds to the call for a more comprehensive examination of individuals’ psychographic characteristics in the context of ecotourism, as suggested by Atzeni and colleagues [3]. The present study, focusing on personality domains (the Big-Five personality domains), has revealed that these domains are an important explanatory variable in explaining ecotourists’ perceptions, concerns, and behavioral tendencies regarding climate change. Thus, it has contributed to empirically testing the transformations in individual values caused by the pandemic and how these transformations coincide with environmentally friendly tendencies. This relationship, which is frequently emphasized in the literature but lacks sufficient empirical evidence, has been supported by quantitative analyses in our study; it has been demonstrated that personality-based factors may play a decisive role in shaping ecotourism intentions in the post-pandemic period.

The findings of this study appear to be largely consistent with the previous literature. The study shows that individuals’ intentions toward ecotourism and their attitudes toward climate change are significantly related to personality domains. In Kvasova’s study [46], Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, and Neuroticism were positively associated with environmentally friendly behavior, while Openness did not show a significant relationship. Similarly, in this study, Conscientiousness had a strong and consistent effect on all climate change-related variables; Extraversion and Agreeableness, on the other hand, influenced some results positively and others negatively. However, in the present study, Openness to Experience, contrary to Kvasova’s findings, exhibited significant positive relationships with concerns about climate change and ecotourism intentions. On the other hand, the findings of this study are consistent with the findings in the literature on ecotourism intention and concern. This is consistent with the study by Rafiq et al. [20], which showed that Extraversion, a personality domain, has a direct positive effect on ecotourism intention and environmental concern. Similarly, Neuroticism (or Emotional Stability based on the study by Gosling et al. [45]), was also found to have direct effects on ecotourism intention and environmental concern. The findings show that individuals’ personality-based tendencies are decisive in understanding environmental awareness and ecotourism behavior and that structures such as Conscientiousness strengthen participation in ecotourism through direct and indirect effects. On the other hand, as seen in the studies by Chen et al. [54], Pham and Khanh [51], Rafiq et al. [20], and Luong and Nguyen [97], a significant relationship was also found between environmental concern and ecotourism intention in this study. Similarly, another study also found a significant relationship between climate change anxiety and the intention to stay at eco-friendly accommodations [98]. In this context, transforming environmental concern into conscious choices through environmental education and awareness campaigns in ecotourism strategies plays a critical role in both destination sustainability and long-term visitor loyalty [97].

In terms of personality domains, Rafiq et al. [20] found that Extroversion and Neuroticism have direct positive effects on environmental concern. On the other hand, Agreeableness and Openness to Experience also have significant effects on environmental concern [55,63]. Milfont and Sibley [57] have demonstrated that levels of environmental concern are significantly associated with Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Openness to Experience, and, in certain cases, the Neuroticism (or Emotional Stability) aspect of personality domains. The findings of this study also indicate that all personality domains have significant effects on anxiety.

The findings of Tucholska and colleagues [69] reveal the decisive effects of personality domains on climate anxiety and environmental behavior tendencies. In particular, the observation that cognitive and emotional dysfunction increases with increasing levels of Neuroticism is consistent with our finding that Emotional Stability is negatively related to general perceptions of the environment, supporting the notion that emotional instability plays an important role in anxiety about the climate crisis. Furthermore, low conscientiousness has been associated with functional impairment, which is consistent with our findings that higher levels of responsibility strengthen positive perceptions of the environment. On the other hand, while the relevant study found a positive relationship between Openness to Experience and planned environmental behaviors, this study did not demonstrate a statistically significant relationship between Openness to Experience and intention to take action to address climate change. This suggests that cross-cultural differences should be considered.

According to the findings of this study, personality domains were found to affect climate change perception. Similarly, according to the findings of Rothermich and colleagues [56], individuals with the Openness domain showed the strongest relationship with positive attitudes toward climate change, and these individuals were found to believe more frequently that climate change is real and will harm them. On the other hand, this study is consistent with the findings of Cipriani and colleagues [68] regarding proactive behaviors toward climate change. According to the findings of the relevant study, the personality dimension most strongly associated with proactive behaviors is Openness to Experience, followed by Extraversion, Neuroticism (Emotional Stability), and Agreeableness. In the present study, it was also observed that personality domains—except for Openness to Experience—had significant effects on intentions to act to cope with climate change. While Openness to Experience showed the highest impact in the referenced study, it was found to be the only personality domain without a significant effect in this study. When the strength of relationships is ranked from highest to lowest, the order appears as Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Emotional Stability. Although Openness to Experience emerges as a variable with differing outcomes across studies, it is generally possible to state that individuals’ cognitive, emotional, and behavioral responses to climate change can be shaped by their personality domains.

6. Conclusions

This study was conducted to explain the effects of individuals’ personality domains on their perceptions, anxieties, and behavioral intentions regarding climate change, as well as their tendencies toward ecotourism in the post-COVID-19 period. The analyses were conducted within the framework of the Big-Five personality domains model, and it was revealed that the trait of Conscientiousness emerged as the strongest and most consistent predictor across all outcome variables related to climate change. Extraversion, Emotional Stability, and Agreeableness showed positive effects on some variables and negative effects on others. Openness to Experience produced significant results only regarding climate change concern and ecotourism intention.

The research contributes to filling theoretical gaps in the field by demonstrating that personality-based psychographic factors are significant variables in understanding individuals’ environmental sensitivity and sustainable tourism behaviors. The relationship between post-pandemic value transformations and environmental attitudes was supported by quantitative methods in this study, emphasizing the impact of personality domains related to abstract thinking on future sustainable living practices.

It is possible to say that ecotourism is becoming increasingly popular both globally and in Turkey, the destination where the data were collected. According to a report published by Grand View Research [11], the size of the ecotourism market was valued at USD 210.4 billion in 2023. In another report released by Precedence Research [99], the global ecotourism market size is stated to be USD 248.17 billion in 2024, and it is emphasized that the market is expected to reach USD 945.34 billion by 2034, representing a CAGR of 14.31% between 2025 and 2034. The relevant report lists “climate change awareness” among the key market drivers of ecotourism. As the effects of global warming become increasingly evident, the need to promote sustainable tourism practices grows, and there is a prevailing belief that tourists can contribute to efforts to protect the environment and reduce carbon emissions through ecotourism. In Turkey, ecotourism areas have been established within the scope of the 2021–2025 Ecotourism Action Plan to promote ecotourism. Currently, there are 107 such areas, and it is planned to increase this number to 200 by the end of 2028. As of 2024, it is reported that these ecotourism areas, which have been incorporated into the tourism sector, have been visited by approximately 5 million people and contribute 1.5 billion TRY annually to the national economy [12,13]. Although the development of ecotourism is supportive and income-generating in terms of tourism, its potential to harm nature should not be overlooked. However, it should also be remembered that ecotourism faces criticisms and challenges such as overcrowding, pollution, altered wildlife behavior due to human presence, exceeding carrying capacity, and negative impacts on the climate and environment [100,101]. Therefore, the attitudes of tourists participating in ecotourism, how ecotourism areas are managed and marketed, and the extent to which carrying capacity is considered in these areas are all of great importance. Considering the increasing economic and strategic significance of ecotourism, it is becoming more crucial to comprehend what psychological factors influence people’s attitudes and intentions towards it. To fulfill this need, the current study provides a systematic analysis of the influences of personality domains on ecotourism intentions and their subsequent impacts on the general perceptions, concerns, and behavioral tendencies towards climate change. As the results indicate, Conscientiousness and Extraversion are strong predictors of ecotourism intention and climate-related cognitive and emotional responses. Thus, over and above the broader macro-level context and policy setting, personality-driven psychographic segmentation provides an additional micro-level prism for devising and operationalizing sustainable tourism interventions. In this sense, this research is consistent not only with the temporal momentum of ecotourism growth worldwide but also highlights the psychological fundamentals that may largely contribute to directing its future trajectory and social impacts.

Based on the findings of this study, various practical and theoretical implications can be drawn. First, the determining effects of personality domains such as Conscientiousness and Extraversion on climate change perception and ecotourism intention indicate that psychographic profiling should be considered in sustainable tourism strategies. Environmental communication and participation campaigns designed in alignment with personality domains are thought to increase awareness and engagement. Second, the fact that ecotourism intention does not automatically translate into broader climate actions points to the need for strategies that convert intention into behavior. Methods such as gamification, nudging, and environmental education could serve as effective tools to bridge this gap. Furthermore, future studies are encouraged to examine mediating and moderating variables (e.g., environmental self-efficacy, moral responsibility) that explain the relationship between personality domains and environmental behaviors. Longitudinal and cross-cultural studies may reveal how these effects vary over time and context. In addition, mixed-method approaches supported by qualitative data will also help deepen our understanding of the relationship between personality and sustainability behaviors. From this point of view, future research should consider including perspectives of other actors such as ecotourism managers, local community representatives, environmental NGOs, and public policy experts. Conducting in-depth qualitative interviews or mixed-method studies could offer a more holistic understanding of how ecotourism practices are perceived, implemented, and regulated in different regions. In this way, multi-stakeholder insights can help contextualize tourists’ views and support the development of more inclusive and effective sustainability strategies in ecotourism.

In conclusion, this study provides valuable insights for both academic research and practical tourism policies by revealing that individual-level responses to environmental issues are shaped by personality-based domains. Stakeholders involved in strategy development within the ecotourism field are advised to analyze tourist profiles not only from a demographic perspective but also from a psychographic one, which will contribute to the development of more targeted and effective sustainability practices.

Despite its contributions, this study is subject to several limitations that should be considered when interpreting the findings. First, the data were exclusively obtained from individuals who participated in nature walking activities in Turkey in 2024. This sampling approach may restrict the external validity of the results, particularly in relation to other forms of ecotourism or differing geographical contexts. Moreover, the sample consisted solely of domestic tourists residing in Turkey, thereby precluding the examination of cross-cultural variability. Consequently, the extent to which these findings can be generalized to international or culturally diverse populations remains uncertain. Additionally, while the Big-Five personality traits framework provides a robust and extensively validated model, it may not encompass the full spectrum of psychological dispositions that influence attitudes and behavioral intentions concerning climate change. Finally, the study did not incorporate potentially moderating or mediating variables such as participants’ environmental education background, political ideology, or prior exposure to climate-related events—factors that may also exert a significant influence on individual perceptions and responses. Addressing these limitations in future research would be beneficial for enhancing the depth, generalizability, and cross-contextual relevance of findings in the field of ecotourism and climate change psychology.