Impact Assessment of Natural Springs for Irrigation Potential in the Hilly Areas of Kashmir

Abstract

The increasing water demand, fueled by rapid development activities, has significantly strained freshwater reservoirs. A comprehensive study was conducted in the Anantnag district of Jammu and Kashmir to determine the discharge rates of key water springs and assess their capacity to meet the crop water requirements within their respective command areas. The research focused on seven vital springs—Martand, Achabal, Malakhnag, Sherbagh, Verinag, Lukhbawan, and Kokernag—which are critical for domestic and agricultural purposes. The study was carried out from May to October 2018, employed the weir formula to measure spring discharge, and utilized evapotranspiration (ETo) calculations, integrating evaporation and rainfall data to estimate crop water requirements. The results revealed significant variability in spring discharge rates, with Verinag spring being the most productive at 4.55 m³/s, followed by Sherbagh at 1.97 m³/s, while Lukhbawan exhibited the lowest discharge rate at 0.17 m³/s. Springs such as Verinag, Martand, and Achabal demonstrated sufficient capacity to meet the water demands of crops in their command areas, highlighting their potential for sustainable agricultural support. These findings emphasize the importance of integrating surface–subsurface water dynamics in water resource management to ensure efficient utilization of these springs for both domestic and irrigation needs. The study provides valuable insights into optimizing spring water use to address increasing water demands in the region, contributing to sustainable development and resource conservation.

1. Introduction

The world is rapidly urbanizing from 1950 to 2020, and the global population living in cities increased from 0.8 billion (29.6%) to 4.4 billion (56.2%), which is projected to reach 6.7 billion (68.4%) by 2050. Water scarcity, where demand exceeds availability, is a key determinant of water security and directly affects the health and well-being of urban residents, urban environmental quality, and socioeconomic development [1,2,3,4,5]. At present, many of the world’s urban populations face water scarcity. Population growth, urbanization, and socioeconomic development are expected to increase urban industrial and domestic water demand by 50–80% over the next three decades [3,6].

India is facing escalating challenges of water scarcity and inadequate access to fresh water, particularly in rural areas, driven by factors such as rapid population growth, changing lifestyles, urbanization, industrialization, and climate change [7]. The availability of water in India has already decreased by 53%, and projections suggest a further decline to 72% by 2025, compared to the baseline of 2500 m³ per person [8]. In subtropical and mountainous regions, intense rainfall often exacerbates water scarcity due to the region’s high altitude and sloping terrain, leading to significant surface runoff and quick subsurface flows. Securing water and food resources for rural communities in mountainous regions is crucial for addressing fundamental needs, including access to clean water for domestic use, irrigation for agriculture, livestock sustenance, and various livelihood activities [9].

Approximately 45% of the population lives in rural areas, with around 250 million people depending on agriculture for their livelihoods. Agriculture accounts for the majority of water usage, especially in hilly regions where irrigation systems often operate inefficiently [10]. By 2050, the demand for agricultural water is anticipated to increase by 11% to support the rising biomass production requirements [11]. Food security relies on agricultural output, which is fundamentally dependent on the availability of adequate water in both quantity and time. To meet the food needs of a growing population, there is a pressing need for expanding agricultural production and adopting sustainable management practices [12,13]. Variations in climatic conditions, such as reduced rainfall, waterlogging, and soil issues, contribute to fluctuations in crop yields [14].

In mountainous regions like the Himalayas, geological formations play a crucial role in creating mountain aquifers, which often manifest as natural springs [15,16]. Springs typically emerge where impermeable rock intersects with the groundwater table, influenced by factors such as lithology, soil porosity, permeability, hydrogeomorphology, slope, and precipitation [16,17,18]. Approximately 60% of the rural and urban Himalayan population relies on spring water, which is crucial for agriculture. Despite only 12.5% of India’s land being cultivated and 11% of cultivable land under irrigation, natural springs irrigate 64% of this land [19].

The Himalayas, renowned for their abundant river systems, struggles to meet the escalating demands for water in agriculture, domestic, and industrial sectors across India due to improper and unscientific water usage practices. This has resulted in severe water shortages in many parts of the country [20,21,22]. Despite the Himalayas being considered the water tower of Asia and receiving adequate rainfall, much of the region is categorized as dry land with minimal irrigation (less than 2% of land irrigated), posing significant challenges in terms of drinking water accessibility [23]. The eco-geological complexity of the Himalayas faces various natural and human-induced pressures, including climate change, global warming, glacier melting, reduced snowfall, increased heavy rainfall, and widespread flooding, all of which severely impact water resources and spring discharge. Reports indicate a widespread decline in spring discharge or drying up due to variations in rainfall patterns and groundwater recharge capacities across the Himalayas [24]. In neighboring areas, notable studies have explored the potential and quality of spring water for agricultural and potable uses. Kumar and Sen [8] monitored a spring in Tehri-Garhwal, Uttarakhand, to evaluate its suitability for agricultural water use. They analyzed crop water requirements, finding higher evapotranspiration rates (946–1062 mm) for long-duration crops (165–180 days) compared to short-duration crops (92.91 mm for 60 days). The total water requirement for major crops was calculated at 6411.35 mm, which the spring could effectively supplement. Implementing the system of rice intensification increased rice yield by 49% and enhanced water productivity. Sensitivity analysis revealed that a 30% increase in crop yield could generate additional revenue of INR 3,687,197, representing a 217% return over input costs.

Thakur et al. [25] studied the role of spring water as a critical source of potable water in the western Himalayan region, particularly in the upper Beas basin, Kullu Valley, Himachal Pradesh. By analyzing 50 springs for physicochemical properties and major ions, they found that most springs were suitable for drinking and irrigation purposes. However, a few springs exhibited high nitrate levels (45–92.6 mg/L), exceeding the BIS limit of 45 mg/L, likely due to contamination from sewage, livestock waste, and fertilizers. Fluoride levels (0.16–0.49 mg/L) were within permissible limits. These findings underscore the importance of monitoring and managing spring water resources for sustainable use in both agriculture and community water supply.

Development has had widespread impacts across India, and increasing environmental changes due to development have adversely affected the sustainability of springs in the Kashmir Valley. Known for its karstic terrain, the Kashmir Valley hosts numerous spring-fed streams [26], each creating aquatic habitats with distinct physicochemical conditions compared to surface-fed streams and ponds [27]. These springs play a crucial role by providing drinking water in densely populated and increasingly polluted areas, as well as supporting irrigation needs, particularly during drought-prone periods over the past two decades. Recognizing the critical importance of spring waters, we conducted an investigation of the discharge of springs (Verinag Spring, Kokernag Spring, Achabal Spring, Lukhbawan Spring, Martand Spring, Malakhnag Spring, and Sherbagh Spring) and the water requirement of different crops belonging to these areas in the Anantnag district. Thus, the objectives of this study are to assess the discharge rates of local springs, evaluate the water requirements of various crops cultivated in the region, and analyze the potential of these springs to support the existing irrigation systems. The study aims to explore an alternative approach to sustainable development by optimizing the utilization of spring water resources.

2. Materials and Methods

This research was conducted in Anantnag, the southernmost district of Kashmir province. Notable springs include Verinag Spring, Kokernag Spring, Achabal Spring, Lukhbawan Spring, Martand Spring, Malakhnag Spring, and Sherbagh Spring. It is located between 75°03′30″–75°19′29″ E longitude and 33°31′07″–33°54′30″ N latitude, covering an area of approximately 402 km² (Figure 1). The population of the district, as per census 2011, is 1,078,692 individuals, comprising 153,640 households [28]. The research area ranges in elevation from 1591 to 2708 m above mean sea level (MSL) and experiences a moderate climate with an average annual precipitation of 1240 mm [29]. The district lies within the Jhelum sub-basin of the Indus basin, with the Jhelum River originating from Verinag and branching into the Lidder, Vishav, and Sangarn rivers. The elevation of the spring shed ranges from 1560 to 4398 m above mean sea level. The slopes surrounding the springs exhibit a range from gentle to steep gradients. Verinag and Kokernag, situated in mountainous locations, feature moderate to steep slopes and are described by slope maps (Figure 2). The climate is most likely classified under the Cfb (oceanic climate) or Cwa (humid subtropical climate) at lower elevations, and Dfb (warm-summer continental climate) or Dfc (subarctic climate) in higher altitudes, based on moderate temperatures, significant monsoon rainfall, and seasonal temperature variations. The soils include alluvial soils in valley plains [30], ideal for crops like rice and wheat; Karewa soils, rich in clay and silt, perfect for saffron and horticulture; and mountain soils in higher altitudes, supporting forests and alpine vegetation.

In contrast, Achabal and Malakhnag have gentler slopes that are conducive to agriculture. Martand Temple Spring is located on a plateau with gentle slopes. These varying gradients significantly influence hydrology and vegetation patterns in Lowlands (below 1500 m): tropical and subtropical forests with species like Salix, Populus, and fruit trees (apple, pear). Agriculture includes rice, wheat, and vegetables. Mid-elevation (1500 to 2500 m): temperate forests with Pine, Deodar, Oak, and Maple. Orchards (apple, walnut) and vegetables are common. Highlands (2500–3500 m) feature subalpine meadows with Rhododendron, Juniper, and alpine grasses, supporting limited barley cultivation. Above 3500 m, alpine and tundra vegetation dominate, with grasses, mosses, and lichens, and minimal agricultural activity is described in LULC map (Figure 3). The Kashmir Valley receives most of its precipitation during the winter and spring seasons [31], crucial for replenishing water levels in springs and rivers. In Anantnag district, a major portion of this water flows as surface runoff into river streams (Figure 4). The winter snowpack acts as a natural reservoir, gradually releasing water during warmer months and sustaining the springs. Geologically, the watershed areas surrounding these springs are characterized by sedimentary rocks like limestone and sandstone dominate the Karewa formations, supporting fertile soils. Igneous rocks such as granite are found in higher elevations, while metamorphic rocks like schist and quartzite occur in the mountainous regions, shaping hydrology and soil properties influenced by karst topography, fault zones, and glacial deposits and are described by the geology map (Figure 5). These geological features play a pivotal role in shaping the hydrology and ecology of the springs, ensuring a consistent and high-quality water supply that supports lush vegetation and diverse land uses across the region. The soils include alluvial soils in valley plains, ideal for crops like rice and wheat; Karewa soils, rich in clay and silt, perfect for saffron and horticulture; and mountain soils in higher altitudes, supporting forests and alpine vegetation. Agricultural operations include rice, wheat, maize, saffron, and vegetables, along with horticulture crops like apples and walnuts. Livestock farming, irrigation using springs, and seasonal sowing and harvesting are key practices supported by fertile soils and favorable climate. In this study, we examined multiple springs within their respective catchment areas using a Digital Elevation Model (DEM), as depicted in Figure 1.

2.1. Discharge of Springs

Spring discharge is determined by both water volume and velocity, representing the amount of water passing through a defined area (cross-section of the flow channel) within a specific unit of time. Typically, discharge is quantified in cubic meters per second (m³/s) or liters per second (l/s). Spring discharge was measured using rectangular weirs, sharp-crested overflow structures installed across open channels to temporarily obstruct and direct water flow over the weir crest. The discharge [32] was determined by first calculating the cross-sectional area of the stream’s outlet through dimensional measurements. Following this, a 30 m section upstream of the outlet was marked, and a lightweight object was placed on the water surface to float freely for flow analysis. Using a stopwatch, we recorded the time taken for the object to travel from the upstream mark to the outlet. Due to variations in water velocity across different layers caused by drag forces, the average velocity was determined by adjusting the surface layer velocity by a factor of 0.85 [33].

Q = A·V

(1)

where

Q is the discharge (m³/s);

A is the area (m²);

V is the velocity (m/s).

Weirs were introduced at the outlet of springs, and the formula [34] used for measuring the discharge of rectangular weirs was presented by Equation (2).

Q = 0.0184lh^1.5

(2)

Q is the discharge in l/s.

l is the length of the weir in cm.

h is the depth of water in cm.

2.2. Crop Water Requirement (ETc)

Evapotranspiration (ET) refers to the combined loss of water to the atmosphere through evaporation and transpiration processes. Estimating ET is crucial for determining crop water requirements and is integral to hydrological processes [35]. It involves the loss of water from soil surfaces and vegetative covers due to these processes.

ET is influenced by numerous climatic factors such as temperature, wind velocity, solar radiation, and humidity, as well as crop-specific factors, including type, height, and soil salinity. Reference crop evapotranspiration (ET₀) denotes the ET of a standard grass crop with defined characteristics. The Penman–Monteith equation [36] is commonly used to compute ET₀, as described by Equation (3).

$${ET}_0={\displaystyle \frac{0.408\times \Delta \times \left\{Rn-G\right\}+\gamma \times \left\{\frac{900}{T+273}\right\}\times {\mu }_2\times \{es-ea\}}{\Delta +\gamma \times \{1+0.34{\mu }_2\}}}$$

(3)

where ET₀ = reference evapotranspiration (mm/d); R_n = net radiation at the crop surface (MJ/m² /d); G = soil heat flux density (MJ/m² /d); C); T = mean daily air temperature at 2 m height, μ₂ = wind speed at 2 m height (m/s); es = saturation vapor pressure (kPa); ea = actual vapor pressure (kPa); es − ea = saturation vapor pressure deficit (kPa); Δ = slope of saturation vapor pressure curve at C; and temperature T (kPa/°C). γ = psychrometric constant (kPa/°C). Equation (3) requires daily records of air temperature, solar radiation, humidity, and wind speed. Other required parameters for Equation (3) can be derived using empirical equations.

Water requirement [37] for the crop under certain specific conditions and to achieve full production is called crop evapotranspiration or crop water requirement (ETc) and is described in Equation (4):

ETc = ET₀ × Kc

(4)

where ETc = crop evapotranspiration (mm/d); ET₀ = reference evapotranspiration (mm/d); and Kc = the crop coefficient. Kc varies with the crop growth, crop type, and a limited extent of climatic conditions [8].

3. Results

3.1. Evaluation of Spring Discharge and Mapping of the Corresponding Irrigated Regions

The average annual availability of spring water in this watershed is detailed in

Table 1. Average discharge and command area of the spring shed.

Spring	Average Discharge	Command Area
	(m3/s)	(Km2)
Martand Temple Spring	0.9124	16.21
Malakhnag Spring	0.23	0.10
Sherbagh Spring	1.97	0.11
Achabal Spring	0.67	14.69
Kokernag Spring	1.16	17.49
Verinag Spring	4.55	25.01
Lukhbawan Spring	0.17	8.9

, based on spring discharge analysis. Table 1 presents the average discharge and command area of various springs within the spring shed region. The average discharge, measured in cubic meters per second (m³/s), indicates the volume of water released by each spring per second, while the command area, expressed in km², represents the geographical area effectively served by each spring. Martand Temple Spring discharges an average of 0.9124 m³/s and serves a command area of 16.21 km². Malakhnag Spring discharges 0.23 m³/s with a command area of 0.10 km². Sherbagh Spring provides an average discharge of 1.97 m³/s and covers a command area of 0.11 km². Achabal Spring discharges 0.67 m³/s and serves a command area of 14.69 km². Kokernag Spring provides 1.16 m³/s with a command area of 17.49 km². Verinag Spring has the highest discharge at 4.55 m³/s and serves a command area of 25.01 km². Lukhbawan Spring discharges 0.17 m³/s and covers a command area of 8.9 km². The discharge curves of Martand (0.94 m³/s), Lukhbawan (0.186 m³/s), Achabal (0.69 m³/s), and Verinag (4.7 m³/s) spring showed a highest discharge in the month of August, while Malaknag (0.25 m³/s), Sherbagh (2.02 m³/s), and Kokernag (1.2 m³/s) possessed highest discharge in the month of September, respectively (Figure 6). Overall, Verinag Spring possessed the maximum discharge in all the four months (August to November) (Figure 6).

3.2. Crop Water Requirement

Understanding hydrology and accurately estimating evapotranspiration are essential for assessing agricultural water needs [38]. Agriculture stands as the predominant consumer of water resources in the Anantnag area, serving as the cornerstone of its economy. Additionally, Figure 7 and Figure 8 provide data on rainfall and evaporation across the Anantnag area, respectively. Many residents rely heavily on locally grown food from their small plots of marginal land. However, economic growth is hindered by insufficient rainfall and inadequate conservation of natural resources such as soil and water. Figure 9 presents the water requirements (mm) for kharif crops (rice, maize, vegetables (beans, cucumbers), and fodder crops, sown in May–June and harvested in September–October), while Figure 10, Figure 11, Figure 12, Figure 13 and Figure 14 detail the monthly water requirements for various crops cultivated throughout the year in the respective areas of the spring.

The graph presents the monthly rainfall data [39] for the years 2010 to 2018 in the study area, highlighting significant temporal and inter-annual variations. Key observations include the following:

Rainfall patterns exhibit distinct seasonal and inter-annual variability. Rainfall is predominantly concentrated during the pre-monsoon (March–May) and monsoon (June–September) seasons, with significantly lower levels observed during the winter (November–February) and post-monsoon months (October–November). The peak rainfall months vary across years, reflecting variability in seasonal precipitation patterns.

Inter-annual analysis reveals notable differences. In 2015, March recorded the highest rainfall, exceeding 400 mm, indicating anomalous weather conditions during that period. The years 2017 and 2018 displayed relatively consistent rainfall distribution, with moderate peaks during the monsoon months. In contrast, 2013 and 2014 experienced relatively lower rainfall throughout the year, potentially reflecting drier conditions. Meanwhile, the years 2010–2012 exhibited more uniform rainfall patterns without extreme deviations, suggesting stable climatic conditions during that period.

The monsoon months (June–September) dominate rainfall distribution, underscoring the region’s reliance on monsoonal precipitation for water resources and agricultural activities. However, anomalies such as the exceptionally high rainfall in March 2015 highlight the influence of extreme weather events or shifts in precipitation patterns, which carry significant implications for water resource management and flood risk assessment.

The graph illustrates monthly evaporation [39] trends for the years 2016, 2017, 2018, and 2019 in the study area, highlighting key seasonal and inter-annual variations. Evaporation rates exhibit clear seasonal trends, consistently rising from January and peaking during the summer months (June–July) when temperatures are at their highest before gradually declining towards the end of the year. Across all years, evaporation rates are minimal from November to February, corresponding to reduced temperatures and lower solar radiation levels. Inter-annual variability is also evident, with 2016 recording the highest summer evaporation rates, likely reflecting hotter and drier climatic conditions. Both 2017 and 2018 followed similar seasonal patterns, characterized by moderate summer evaporation peaks. In contrast, 2019 showed an unusual sharp decline in evaporation after July, potentially due to early monsoons, increased cloud cover, or other climatic anomalies.

(I)

Martand Spring

Monthly average discharge of Martand Spring. Mattan: 2.25 Mm³.

The monthly requirement of crops (m³) in the Mattan area is provided below.

Figure 10. Monthly water requirement (mm) in Martand’s Kharif crops (paddy, maize, and millets) from May to October, indicating a variation in peaks from July to September.

Figure 10. Monthly water requirement (mm) in Martand’s Kharif crops (paddy, maize, and millets) from May to October, indicating a variation in peaks from July to September.

(II)

Verinag Spring

Monthly average discharge of Verinag Spring: 11.79 Mm^3.

Monthly requirement of crops (m³) in Verinag area is as follows:

Figure 11. Monthly water requirement (mm) in Verinag’s Kharif crops (paddy, maize, and millets) from May to October, indicating a variation in peaks from July to September.

Figure 11. Monthly water requirement (mm) in Verinag’s Kharif crops (paddy, maize, and millets) from May to October, indicating a variation in peaks from July to September.

(III)

Kokernag Spring

Monthly average discharge of Kokernag Spring: 3.0 Mm^3.

Monthly requirement of crops (m³) in Kokernag area is as follows:

Figure 12. Monthly water requirement (mm) in Kokernag’s Kharif crops (paddy, maize, and millets) from May to October, indicating a variation in peaks from July to September.

Figure 12. Monthly water requirement (mm) in Kokernag’s Kharif crops (paddy, maize, and millets) from May to October, indicating a variation in peaks from July to September.

(IV)

Lukhbawan Spring

Monthly average discharge of Lukhbawan Spring: 461,376 m^3.

Monthly requirement of crops (m³) in Lukhbawan area is as follows:

Figure 13. Monthly water requirement (mm) in Lukbawan’s Kharif crops (paddy, maize, and millets) from May to October, indicating a variation in peaks from July to September.

Figure 13. Monthly water requirement (mm) in Lukbawan’s Kharif crops (paddy, maize, and millets) from May to October, indicating a variation in peaks from July to September.

(V)

Achabal Spring

Monthly average discharge of Achabal Spring: 461,376 m^3.

Monthly requirement of crops (m³) in Achabal area is as follows:

Figure 14. Monthly water requirement (mm) in Achabal’s Kharif crops (paddy, maize, and millets) from May to October, indicating a variation in peaks from July to September.

Figure 14. Monthly water requirement (mm) in Achabal’s Kharif crops (paddy, maize, and millets) from May to October, indicating a variation in peaks from July to September.

4. Discussion

Groundwater springs are the principal water resources in the Himalayas and are highly vulnerable to climate change [40] and land use modifications [41,42]. Additionally, exponential growth in mountain tourism and seasonal fluctuations in hill populations [43] further exacerbate the stress on these vital water resources.

In the Kashmir Valley, water demand is primarily met by the springs and its glacial-fed tributaries. However, the superior water quality and year-round availability of groundwater make springs a preferred choice for domestic and drinking purposes. The impacts of global climate change are becoming increasingly evident in the Himalayan rivers, which are experiencing a declining streamflow and becoming more seasonal [44,45]. This has led to a growing dependence on groundwater resources, including springs, to meet water needs. Under future climate scenarios [46], groundwater springs hold the potential to act as a buffer for maintaining water security in the region. Springs, often referred to as the greenest source of groundwater due to their energy-free extraction process, can play a critical role in supporting irrigation in the hilly areas of Kashmir. This study focuses on assessing the natural springs of the Anantnag district to evaluate their irrigation potential, ensuring sustainable water resource management in the face of climatic and anthropogenic challenges. Verinag Spring, boasting the highest discharge rate of 4.55 m³/s, yields a substantial water flow totaling 70.76 Mm³ over six months. This volume significantly exceeds the crop water requirement of 17.02 Mm³, making Verinag Spring highly suitable for irrigation in the Verinag area [47]. As a perennial spring, its discharge remains consistent throughout the year, ensuring that crop water needs are fully met solely by the spring without the need for additional water storage structures. Similarly, Kokernag Spring, with a discharge rate of 1.16 m³/s, provides a total water flow of 18.0 Mm³ over six months, surpassing the crop water requirement of 11.86 Mm³. This confirms the feasibility of using Kokernag Spring for irrigation [47] in the Kokernag area, supported by its consistent year-round discharge that reliably meets crop water demands and obviates the requirement for supplementary water storage facilities. Martand Temple Spring also proves to be a viable source for irrigation, delivering a total discharge of 13.53 Mm³ over six months, which exceeds the crop water requirement of 11.76 Mm³, making it a feasible water source for irrigation in the Mattan area.

Conversely, Lukhbawan Spring exhibits the lowest discharge at 0.17 m³/s, resulting in a total discharge of 2.76 Mm³ over six months, falling short of the crop water requirement of 11.76 Mm³. This inadequacy renders it unsuitable for irrigation in the Lukhbawan area. Achabal Spring also records an overall discharge of 2.76 Mm³ over six months, failing to meet the crop water requirement of 10.65 Mm³, thereby precluding its feasibility for irrigation in the Achabal area [47]. Sherbagh Spring and Malakhnag Spring, designated primarily for drinking purposes, underscore their importance in providing potable water rather than meeting agricultural irrigation needs.

Among the crops, paddy exhibits the highest water requirement, peaking at 265.38 mm in July [48]. This substantial demand during the summer months necessitates a reliable and abundant water source. Verinag Spring, with its impressive discharge rate of 4.55 m³/s and a total of 70.76 Mm³ over six months, is well equipped to meet this high-water requirement. Its consistent year-round discharge ensures sufficient water availability even during peak summer months when water needs for paddy are at their highest. Similarly, Kokernag Spring (1.16 m³/s, 18.0 Mm³) and Martand Temple Spring (13.53 Mm³) provide ample water for paddy cultivation.

For maize, which has a significant water requirement of 206.65 mm in July [49], Verinag Spring, Kokernag Spring, and Martand Temple Spring are all capable of meeting these demands due to their respective discharge rates and consistent water flow. Verinag Spring, with its abundant discharge, ensures ample water supply for maize crops during their peak requirement period. Millets, with a peak water requirement of 136.65 mm in September, also benefit from the consistent flow of Verinag Spring, Kokernag Spring, and Martand Temple Spring, ensuring sustained water availability into the early autumn months. Figure 15 illustrates the relationship between the discharge rates of springs and the corresponding crop water requirements, highlighting the critical role of reliable spring discharge in meeting agricultural water needs throughout the year.

5. Conclusions

Quantifying spring water discharge and evaluating crop water requirements provide critical insights for optimizing agricultural practices in the Anantnag region of Jammu and Kashmir. This study analyzed the discharge rates of seven major springs and their potential for meeting irrigation demands in their respective command areas. The findings reveal significant variability in spring discharge, with Verinag Spring exhibiting the highest annual discharge of 70.76 Mm³, far exceeding the crop water requirement of 17.02 Mm³, making it highly suitable for irrigation. Similarly, Martand Temple Spring (13.53 Mm³) and Kokernag Spring (18.0 Mm³) have sufficient discharge to meet their respective crop water requirements of 11.76 Mm³ and 11.86 Mm³, supporting sustainable irrigation in these areas. Conversely, Lukhbawan Spring (2.76 Mm³) and Achabal Spring (2.76 Mm³) fall short of their respective crop water demands of 11.76 Mm³ and 10.65 Mm³, making them unsuitable for irrigation. Springs like Sherbagh and Malakhnag are designated solely for drinking water and are not utilized for agricultural purposes. The highest crop water requirements were observed for paddy (265.38 mm) and maize (206.65 mm) in July, while millets required the most water (136.65 mm) in September. These findings emphasize the importance of integrating spring water management with crop water requirements to enhance agricultural productivity. Excess spring discharge during the monsoon season could be stored in reservoirs for use during drier periods, improving water availability and crop yields.

6. Limitations

The study encountered significant challenges in determining spring discharge due to temporal and spatial limitations. Conducted over specific months, it failed to capture the full seasonal variability in discharge patterns, thereby overlooking long-term trends and anomalies. By focusing only on selected springs, the research provided an incomplete understanding of the watershed’s hydrology, as each spring exhibits unique discharge characteristics influenced by local geological and hydrological factors. Moreover, issues like instrument accuracy and accessibility posed challenges to data quality. Environmental variables such as climate fluctuations and human activities affecting water extraction further contributed to uncertainties. In assessing crop water requirements, the study’s reliance on limited seasonal data did not encompass the entire crop growth cycle or annual weather variations, thereby constraining the accuracy of water demand estimations. The study’s narrow focus on specific springs also limited its ability to comprehensively evaluate water needs across the agricultural area, where diverse soil types, crop varieties, and irrigation practices prevail.

The absence of historical data and the use of estimation models added to the uncertainties. Differences in irrigation methods and crop diversity further complicate the assessment of water requirements. Resource constraints, including limited funding and time, constrained the study’s scope and depth, resulting in fewer data points and less extensive analysis. Technical limitations in expertise and equipment affected data precision, while external factors like policy shifts and ongoing environmental changes could influence the study’s findings and their long-term applicability. Methodological challenges, such as ensuring consistent measurement approaches and integrating diverse data sources, introduced additional variability and uncertainty into the study’s outcome.

7. Future Thrust

7.1. Advanced Geospatial Analysis

Future studies should employ high-resolution satellite imagery and LiDAR technology for detailed mapping. Time-series analysis with remote sensing data will enable the monitoring of seasonal and long-term changes, providing a comprehensive understanding of discharge patterns.

7.2. Climate Impact Studies

Developing and applying climate models can predict how climate change will affect precipitation and temperature variations, influencing spring discharge and crop water needs. Identifying adaptive land use and water management strategies can help mitigate these impacts.

7.3. Integrated Watershed Management

A holistic approach to watershed management, considering the interconnections of land use, forest cover, and hydrology, is essential. Engaging local communities in planning and implementation ensures sustainability and relevance to local conditions.

7.4. Biodiversity Conservation

Protecting and restoring critical habitats around springs to conserve biodiversity is crucial. Implementing monitoring programs for key species will help track ecosystem health and guide conservation efforts.

7.5. Geological and Hydrological Research

Detailed hydrogeological studies to understand groundwater flow patterns and assess geohazards can inform better water resource management. This includes identifying recharge areas and mitigating risks from natural disasters.

7.6. Collaborative Research

Interdisciplinary and international collaboration brings diverse expertise and perspectives to address complex environmental issues. Sharing knowledge and best practices can drive innovation in sustainable management. Focusing on these areas will address current study limitations and provide a robust framework for understanding and managing the environmental dynamics of the Anantnag region.