Guardians of the Green: Exploring Climate Advocacy, Data Privacy-Conscious Marketing, and Social Moral Licensing in Regenerative Tourism in Hawaii

Abstract

While environmental consciousness has gained global momentum, the influence of climate advocacy on consumer behavior within tourism has rarely been examined. The present study investigated the impact of climate advocacy on regenerative tourism intentions while examining the moderating effects of data privacy-conscious marketing and social moral licensing. Drawing on theoretical frameworks focusing on social psychology and digital marketing ethics, the present study employed a survey-based quantitative approach to collect online data from environmentally conscious tourists in Hawaii (N = 526). The findings highlighted that the positive impact of climate advocacy on regenerative tourism intention is significantly reinforced by data privacy-conscious marketing and social moral licensing. The present study extends theoretical implications by underscoring the integration of behavior change theories in understanding consumer decision-making processes in regenerative tourism. Importantly, the practical implications of this study advocate for ethical digital marketing strategies and climate advocacy initiatives to support regenerative tourism practices. Hence, the present study offers ground-breaking evidence on the nuanced interplay between climate advocacy, privacy-conscious marketing, social moral licensing, and regenerative tourism intention. These strategic insights can aid tourism marketers and destination managers in fostering a more environmentally responsible tourism industry amidst global environmental challenges.

1. Introduction

In a world increasingly defined by climate urgency and digital connectivity, consumers’ choices hold unprecedented influence to shape our planet’s future [1,2]. Globally, travelers seek meaningful and responsible ways to explore touristic destinations, while the convergence of climate advocacy, data privacy concerns, and ethical consumerism presents a compelling arena for exploration and innovation in regenerative tourism practices [3]. The dynamic global landscape, characterized by escalating environmental concerns, evolving consumer behaviors, and the intersection of climate advocacy and tourism, has emerged as a pivotal area of inquiry [4,5]. At its core, regenerative tourism not only emphasizes sustainability but also aims to restore and enhance natural and cultural environments, offering a transformative approach to mitigate the negative impacts of traditional tourism practices [6]. This paradigm shift underscores the need to explore the intricate relationships between consumer perceptions, ethical marketing strategies, and data privacy—a nexus that necessitates rigorous investigation [7,8].

Climate advocacy stands as a cornerstone in the ongoing global efforts towards environmental preservation and climate change mitigation [2,9]. This movement encompasses a spectrum of initiatives, from grassroots activism to corporate sustainability pledges, all aimed at fostering awareness and action towards a more sustainable future [10]. Simultaneously, the tourism sector, traditionally criticized for its detrimental effects on ecosystems and local communities, is witnessing a profound shift towards regenerative practices [3]. Regenerative tourism seeks not merely to minimize harm, but to actively contribute to the restoration and regeneration of destinations, fostering symbiotic relationships between travelers and host communities [11]. The emergence of data privacy-conscious marketing strategies represents a crucial evolution in consumer engagement within this context [12]. As digital interactions increasingly shape consumer decision-making processes, concerns regarding the collection, use, and protection of personal data have become paramount [13]. Effective digital marketing in the realm of regenerative tourism must navigate these concerns sensitively, balancing the imperative to communicate sustainability efforts with the need to uphold consumer trust and privacy [8,10,12]. Moreover, the concept of social moral licensing introduces a psychological dimension to consumer behavior. It suggests that individuals may grant themselves ethical credentials following virtuous actions, potentially offsetting subsequent behaviors that could contradict their initial virtuous stance. In the context of tourism, consumers who engage in regenerative travel experiences might perceive themselves as having fulfilled their environmental obligations, thereby justifying less sustainable behaviors in other aspects of their lives [14].

Amidst these complex dynamics, the research problem at hand seeks to investigate the impact of climate advocacy on consumers’ intentions to engage in regenerative tourism [1,15]. Specifically, the present study aimed to explore how data privacy-conscious marketing and social moral licensing moderate this relationship. By examining these factors, this research endeavors to elucidate the multifaceted drivers and barriers influencing consumer decision-making in the regenerative tourism context [5,11,16]. The scope of this study encompasses a diverse range of consumers who participate in travel experiences, with a particular focus on understanding how varying levels of climate advocacy awareness influence their perceptions and behaviors toward regenerative tourism offerings [15,17].

The literature on climate advocacy and regenerative tourism highlights a growing body of research exploring consumer attitudes and behaviors in terms of environmental responsibility. Previous studies have identified various factors influencing regenerative tourism choices, including environmental consciousness, perceived benefits, and trust in organizational practices [2,8,15]. However, gaps persist in understanding the specific mechanisms through which climate advocacy initiatives translate into actionable consumer behaviors within the context of regenerative tourism [7]. Theoretical frameworks such as the theory of planned behavior and the value–belief–norm theory offer valuable perspectives on understanding how individual attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control shape intentions and behaviors related to regenerative tourism [5,6,8]. These frameworks provide a foundation for exploring the cognitive processes underlying consumer decision-making, emphasizing the role of both individual beliefs and social influences in promoting pro-environmental behaviors [7]. Central to this study is the integration of several theoretical perspectives to elucidate the complex interactions between climate advocacy, data privacy-conscious marketing, social moral licensing, and consumer behavior. Drawing from social identity theory, the research considers how individuals’ identification with climate advocacy groups or movements influences their adoption of regenerative tourism practices [4,15,18]. Additionally, the framework incorporates insights from privacy calculus theory to examine how consumers weigh the benefits of personalized marketing against concerns over data privacy [12,16].

Despite the growing literature on regenerative tourism and consumer behavior, notable gaps remain in understanding the nuanced interplay between climate advocacy and regenerative tourism intentions, particularly in relation to moderating factors like data privacy-conscious marketing and social moral licensing [1,5,7,12,15,19]. Existing research often focuses on general environmental attitudes or broad intentions without delving into the specific mechanisms that influence consumer decisions in the context of regenerative tourism [5,7]. This study seeks to address this gap by examining these interrelationships comprehensively, thereby contributing to a more nuanced understanding of regenerative tourism behaviors [10]. This research aims to achieve several key objectives, including (1) to examine the influence of climate advocacy on consumers’ attitudes towards regenerative tourism by assessing how awareness and engagement with climate advocacy initiatives shape consumer perceptions of regenerative tourism practices; (2) to analyze the moderating effects of data privacy-conscious marketing by investigating how consumers’ concerns regarding data privacy impact their responsiveness to digital marketing communications promoting regenerative tourism; and (3) to explore the role of social moral licensing by understanding whether and how engagement in regenerative tourism experiences influences consumers’ subsequent behaviors and decisions related to sustainability. By addressing these objectives, the study seeks to provide nuanced insights into the motivations and barriers that shape consumer behaviors in the realm of regenerative tourism [5,11].

Hence, this research holds significant implications for both theory and practice within the fields of regenerative tourism and consumer behavior [2,5]. By uncovering the interplay between climate advocacy, data privacy-conscious marketing, and social moral licensing, the study aims to inform strategic interventions aimed at promoting regenerative tourism practices [4,10]. Moreover, the findings will contribute to the knowledge on the psychological mechanisms that underpin consumer decision-making in environmentally conscious contexts. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for policymakers, marketers, and tourism stakeholders seeking to foster a more sustainable tourism industry. By identifying effective strategies to enhance consumer engagement in regenerative tourism, this research aims to support the development of policies and practices that align environmental stewardship with consumer preferences and ethical considerations [7,20,21].

2. Literature Review

2.1. Climate Advocacy

Climate advocacy within the context of tourism research encompasses efforts aimed at promoting sustainability practices, mitigating environmental impacts, and fostering awareness among stakeholders within the tourism industry [1,2]. At its core, climate advocacy involves advocating for policies, practices, and behaviors that support a reduction in carbon footprint, preservation of natural resources, and promotion of environmentally responsible tourism practices. The conceptual foundation of climate advocacy in tourism can be understood through several underpinning theories [4]. One prominent theory is the theory of planned behavior (TPB), which posits that attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control influence individuals’ intentions to engage in pro-environmental behaviors such as supporting climate advocacy initiatives in tourism [8,22,23]. According to the TPB, individuals are more likely to advocate for climate-friendly practices if they perceive positive attitudes towards regenerative tourism, feel social pressure from peers and society to act responsibly, and believe they have the capability to make a difference through their actions [8]. Additionally, social identity theory (SIT) offers insights into how group identities and affiliations influence climate advocacy within tourism. SIT suggests that individuals derive part of their identity from the social groups they belong to, such as environmental organizations, regenerative tourism networks, or eco-conscious traveler communities [9,18]. As such, individuals who identify strongly with these groups are more likely to engage in climate advocacy behaviors and promote regenerative tourism practices to enhance their social identity and belongingness [7,24].

The literature on climate advocacy in tourism research highlights various strategies and initiatives implemented by stakeholders to advance sustainability goals [24]. These include educational campaigns targeting tourists and industry professionals to raise awareness about climate change impacts on tourism destinations, advocacy for policy changes at local and international levels to regulate carbon emissions and promote eco-friendly tourism infrastructure, and collaborative efforts between governments, businesses, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) to develop regenerative tourism practices [17,25]. Furthermore, studies underscore the importance of stakeholder engagement and collaboration in effective climate advocacy within tourism. Engaging local communities, tourism operators, governmental bodies, and NGOs fosters a collective effort towards implementing sustainable practices and advocating for policies that prioritize environmental conservation and climate resilience in tourism destinations [9,15,22].

Hence, climate advocacy in tourism research not only addresses environmental sustainability but also underscores the societal and economic benefits of adopting responsible tourism practices [26]. By integrating theoretical frameworks such as the theory of planned behavior and social identity theory, researchers can better understand the motivations and behaviors driving climate advocacy within the tourism sector, thereby contributing to the advancement of regenerative tourism practices globally [5]. Prominent studies have emphasized the need to explore innovative strategies and evaluate the effectiveness of climate advocacy initiatives in achieving long-term sustainability goals in tourism [8,18,22].

2.2. Social Moral Licensing

Social moral licensing is a psychological phenomenon wherein individuals allow themselves to engage in morally questionable behaviors after performing virtuous acts or holding positive self-views [8,27,28]. In the context of tourism research, this concept sheds light on how tourists’ prior ethical behaviors influence their subsequent decisions and behaviors during travel experiences. The theoretical foundation of social moral licensing can be traced to self-perception theory [3,29], which posits that individuals infer their attitudes from observing their own behavior. Applied to tourism, tourists may justify indulgent behaviors, such as opting for luxury accommodation, after engaging in sustainable practices like recycling or supporting local communities. This justification helps maintain a sense of moral consistency within themselves. Conversely, cognitive dissonance theory [29] plays a significant role in understanding social moral licensing in tourism [27]. When tourists experience a conflict between their pro-environmental beliefs and their actual unsustainable behaviors (e.g., excessive water usage in luxury resorts), they may reduce this discomfort by morally licensing their actions. This could involve rationalizing their behavior as a reward for their previous eco-friendly choices or as a way to support the local economy, thus balancing their moral self-image [27,30].

Empirical studies in tourism research reveal both positive and negative dimensions of social moral licensing. For instance, prior research indicates that tourists may engage in unsustainable behaviors after engaging in environmentally responsible activities, feeling entitled to reward themselves with luxury experiences [5,8,10]. This phenomenon suggests that positive actions can inadvertently lead to negative environmental impacts if tourists perceive a moral offset. However, social moral licensing can also reinforce sustainable behaviors in tourism. Prior studies argue that individuals who perceive themselves as ethical tourists are more likely to engage in sustainable practices consistently throughout their travels [10,15,20]. This suggests that positive self-views and moral licensing can align to support ongoing responsible behaviors, such as minimizing waste or respecting local cultures. Hence, social moral licensing in tourism research highlights the intricate relationship between tourists’ ethical behaviors, self-perceptions, and their decision-making processes during travel. Grounded in theories of self-perception and cognitive dissonance, this concept offers valuable insights into how tourists navigate ethical dilemmas and make choices that align with their moral identities [8,29,31]. These underlying mechanisms across diverse tourism contexts can facilitate informed sustainable practices and deepen our understanding of tourist behavior. Hence, by understanding the complexities of moral decision-making in tourism, stakeholders can develop strategies to encourage and reinforce responsible behaviors among tourists worldwide [5,8].

2.3. Data Privacy-Conscious Marketing

Data privacy-conscious marketing in the context of tourism research revolves around the ethical and strategic considerations of managing consumer information in a manner that respects individual privacy rights while leveraging data for digital marketing purposes effectively [12,32]. At its core, this concept encompasses the careful balance between personalization and protection, which is crucial in an era of heightened digital scrutiny and regulatory frameworks. Data privacy-conscious marketing refers to the practice of ethically collecting, managing, and utilizing consumer data in tourism contexts while prioritizing individual privacy preferences and complying with legal regulations [33,34]. It involves strategies that aim to build trust and transparency with consumers by ensuring their data are handled responsibly, thereby fostering long-term relationships and mitigating risks associated with data breaches and misuse [13,34].

According to the social contract theory, individuals voluntarily surrender certain rights in exchange for benefits within a societal framework. Applied to data privacy, consumers provide personal information under the expectation that organizations will uphold privacy promises and protect their data [12,35]. Trust theory also explains the pivotal role of trust in data privacy-conscious marketing as it influences consumers’ willingness to share personal information. Trust can be cultivated through transparency in data collection practices, clear communication about data usage, and responsive handling of consumer concerns [8]. Research indicates a growing emphasis on consumer privacy preferences and regulatory compliance within the tourism sector. Prior studies highlight that privacy concerns influence consumer behaviors, such as information disclosure and engagement with personalized marketing efforts. Effective management of data privacy not only ensures legal compliance but also enhances consumer trust, leading to increased brand loyalty and positive word-of-mouth [8,32,36].

Hence, data privacy-conscious marketing in tourism research is a critical area requiring strategic attention and ethical considerations. By adhering to principles of transparency, consumer control, and legal compliance, tourism businesses can navigate the complexities of data privacy while harnessing its potential for personalized marketing initiatives [12,13]. The evolving consumer expectations, technological advancements, and regulatory landscapes can guide best practices in data privacy-conscious marketing within the dynamic tourism industry [10,12,37].

2.4. Regenerative Tourism Intention

Regenerative tourism intention represents a paradigm shift towards regenerative tourism practices that actively contribute to the restoration and enhancement of natural and cultural environments, rather than merely minimizing negative impacts [3,10,15]. It embodies a proactive approach where tourists and tourism stakeholders aim to regenerate ecosystems, support local communities, and preserve cultural heritage through their travel behaviors [5,38]. Resilience theory posits that ecosystems and communities can thrive when supported by diverse and adaptive interactions. Applied to regenerative tourism, resilience theory emphasizes the importance of fostering robust socio-ecological systems that can sustainably support tourism activities without compromising future generations’ ability to meet their own needs [10,15]. Moreover, the triple bottom line (TBL) theory advocates for businesses (and by extension tourism enterprises) to consider their impact on three dimensions: economic, social, and environmental [5,11]. Regenerative tourism intention aligns with the TBL framework by promoting tourism practices that generate positive outcomes across all three dimensions, aiming for holistic benefits that support long-term sustainability [11,38,39].

Recent studies underscore the growing interest and adoption of regenerative tourism practices among tourists and tourism operators worldwide. Prior research identifies that tourists increasingly prioritize experiences that offer meaningful engagement with local cultures, environments, and communities [10,15]. This shift is driven by a desire for authentic experiences that contribute positively to destinations, aligning with regenerative tourism principles. Empirical evidence suggests that regenerative tourism initiatives can foster economic resilience in local communities, enhance environmental conservation efforts, and promote cultural preservation [5,39]. These initiatives are supported by frameworks such as sustainable tourism development goals (STDGs), which provide a roadmap for integrating regenerative practices into tourism policy and planning [6,38]. Hence, regenerative tourism intention represents a forward-thinking approach to tourism development that prioritizes regeneration over mere sustainability [5,7]. By embracing principles from resilience theory and TBL, stakeholders can foster tourism practices that contribute positively to socio-ecological systems while delivering authentic and enriching experiences for tourists [38]. The effectiveness of regenerative tourism strategies, barriers to implementation, and the role of education and policy can mobilize the promotion of regenerative tourism practices [5,39].

2.5. Climate Advocacy and Regenerative Tourism Intention

Individuals or organizations engaged in advocating for climate action are more likely to support and engage in tourism practices that contribute positively to environmental and cultural regeneration. According to the theory of planned behavior (TPB), individuals’ behavioral intentions are influenced by their attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control [8,9,15]. Climate advocacy can shape attitudes towards sustainability and influence subjective norms by promoting pro-environmental behaviors and societal expectations of responsible tourism practices [2,15]. Social learning theory posits that individuals learn behaviors through observation, imitation, and modeling [15,31]. Climate advocacy campaigns can serve as powerful sources of information and motivation, fostering learning and influencing individuals’ intentions to engage in regenerative tourism practices through increased awareness and understanding of environmental issues [1,7,15].

Climate advocacy plays a crucial role in shaping public perceptions and behaviors toward environmental conservation and sustainability. Prior research suggests that individuals who actively participate in climate advocacy activities are more likely to exhibit pro-environmental behaviors in various domains, including tourism [3,38]. This alignment stems from heightened environmental awareness and a sense of responsibility towards mitigating climate impacts. Moreover, studies have shown that exposure to climate advocacy messages and initiatives can enhance individuals’ environmental consciousness and commitment to sustainable behaviors [5,14]. This heightened awareness translates into increased support for regenerative tourism practices, characterized by efforts to restore ecosystems, preserve cultural heritage, and promote community resilience [14]. Empirical evidence supports the hypothesis that climate advocacy positively influences regenerative tourism intention. For instance, prior research demonstrates that tourists who actively engage with climate advocacy organizations are more likely to seek out destinations and accommodations that align with sustainable principles and contribute positively to local communities and ecosystems [1,6,15]. Hence, climate advocacy serves as a catalyst for promoting regenerative tourism intention by shaping attitudes, norms, and behaviors toward sustainable practices [38]. The theoretical frameworks of the TPB and social learning theory provide a robust foundation for understanding how advocacy efforts can influence individuals’ intentions to engage in tourism activities that support environmental and cultural regeneration [2,10,15]. The underlying mechanisms through which climate advocacy translates into tangible actions (e.g., regenerative activities) within the tourism sector highlight the pathways for fostering regenerative tourism development [1,3,39].

Hypothesis 1: 

Climate advocacy has a significant positive effect on regenerative tourism intention.

2.6. Moderating Effects of Data Privacy-Conscious Marketing

Climate advocacy refers to individuals’ efforts to support environmental sustainability and combat climate change through various actions, including regenerative tourism practices [5,9]. In contrast, regenerative tourism intention signifies the inclination to engage in tourism activities that actively contribute to environmental and cultural regeneration [10,11]. The theory of planned behavior (TPB) suggests that behavioral intentions are influenced by attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control. In the context of regenerative tourism intention, individuals who are advocates for climate action are likely to have positive attitudes towards regenerative tourism practices and perceive these as a way to contribute to environmental regeneration [3,8,23]. According to privacy calculus theory (PCT), individuals engage in a cost-benefit analysis when deciding whether to disclose personal information. Applied to data privacy-conscious marketing, consumers are more likely to engage with climate advocacy messages and regenerative tourism initiatives if they trust that their personal data will be handled ethically and securely [8,32,40].

Existing literature supports the interconnectedness between climate advocacy, regenerative tourism, and consumer behavior. Prior studies indicate that consumers who are environmentally conscious are more likely to support businesses that demonstrate environmental responsibility [10,15]. Data privacy-conscious marketing enhances consumer trust and willingness to engage with climate advocacy messages, thereby facilitating positive attitudes toward regenerative tourism practices [5]. Moreover, previous studies emphasize the importance of integrating ethical considerations into digital marketing strategies to foster consumer engagement with sustainability initiatives. When tourism businesses prioritize data privacy and transparency, they enhance their credibility as stewards of consumer information and environmental sustainability, thereby reinforcing the positive impact of climate advocacy on regenerative tourism intention [2,5,41,42].

The proposed hypothesis argues that data privacy-conscious marketing acts as a moderator in the relationship between climate advocacy and regenerative tourism intention. It posits that effective data privacy practices strengthen the positive influence of climate advocacy on individuals’ intentions to participate in regenerative tourism activities [9,12,15,32]. By ensuring data security and respecting consumer privacy preferences, tourism businesses can amplify the impact of climate advocacy messages, leading to enhanced support for regenerative tourism initiatives. Hence, data privacy-conscious marketing facilitates the shaping of consumer behaviors toward regenerative tourism. Grounded in the TPB and privacy calculus theory, the hypothesis proposes that ethical data handling practices enhance the effectiveness of climate advocacy efforts in promoting regenerative tourism practices [8,12,15,43]. The modes of data privacy-conscious marketing can influence consumer perceptions and behaviors in the context of sustainable and/or regenerative tourism [10,12].

Hypothesis 2: 

Data privacy-conscious marketing has a significant and positive moderating effect on the relationship between climate advocacy and regenerative tourism intention.

2.7. Moderating Effects of Social Moral Licensing

Social moral licensing refers to the phenomenon where individuals feel licensed to engage in behaviors that are inconsistent with their ethical values after performing a moral act [16,27,30]. In the context of regenerative tourism intention, individuals who perceive themselves as morally virtuous due to their support for environmental causes may be more inclined to choose tourism options that align with sustainability principles [15]. The theory of planned behavior (TPB) posits that individuals’ intentions to engage in a specific behavior are influenced by their attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control. In this hypothesis, climate advocacy can shape positive attitudes towards regenerative tourism by highlighting the importance of sustainable practices and environmental stewardship [8,23,27]. Moreover, the social identity theory suggests that individuals’ behavior is influenced by their identification with social groups and the values associated with these groups. Climate advocates often belong to communities that promote environmental responsibility, which can strengthen their commitment to regenerative tourism behaviors as a way to align with group norms and values [5,10,18].

Regenerative tourism intention involves tourists actively seeking travel experiences that contribute positively to the environment and local communities [15], whereas climate advocacy enhances individuals’ awareness of environmental issues and fosters a sense of responsibility towards adopting sustainable behaviors [9]. Social moral licensing posits that individuals who perceive themselves as morally upright in one domain (e.g., supporting climate action) may feel licensed to engage in behaviors that benefit the environment in other domains (e.g., choosing regenerative tourism activities). Empirical studies have demonstrated that moral considerations influence a variety of behaviors, including consumer choices and environmental actions [3,15]. Applying this concept to regenerative tourism intention suggests that individuals who engage in climate advocacy may exhibit stronger intentions to participate in tourism practices that contribute positively to environmental conservation and community well-being [2,8,15,16]. Hence, social moral licensing and its effect on regenerative tourism intention integrate psychological mechanisms with regenerative tourism behaviors. By understanding how moral considerations influence decision-making processes, stakeholders in the tourism industry can develop strategies to encourage and support regenerative tourism practices among environmentally conscious travelers [6,9,16,27].

Hypothesis 3: 

Social moral licensing has a significant and positive moderating effect on the relationship between climate advocacy and regenerative tourism intention.

3. Methods

3.1. Sampling and Procedure

The present study employed a convenience-based sampling method to survey international and domestic tourists (N = 526) who had recently visited Hawaii (an emerging destination for regenerative tourism), especially focusing on tourists who were actively engaged in climate advocacy and regenerative tourism practices. Participants were recruited through targeted communications and survey invitations posted on social media platforms, particularly Facebook groups and LinkedIn [5]. The standardized-online survey was designed to attract respondents who were likely to have opinions and behaviors aligned with the present study’s focus. To mitigate potential biases (inherent in convenience sampling), several procedures were implemented. Firstly, efforts were made to diversify recruitment channels within the selected social media platforms to reach a broader demographic and geographic representation of respondents [8,15]. Secondly, the survey instrument included attention-check questions to identify careless responses and ensure data quality. Additionally, respondents were assured of anonymity and confidentiality to encourage honest and accurate responses. Moreover, statistical techniques such as partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) were utilized to address common method bias (CMB) by separating the measurement and structural models and employing latent variables [5,7,15,44].

3.2. Measures

The survey instrument in this study utilized newly developed (i.e., pilot-tested after expert review) as well as validated scales to measure key constructs (see Appendix A) [15]. Climate advocacy was assessed using an 8-item scale adapted from previous research on environmental advocacy behaviors [7]. Participants rated their level of engagement in climate advocacy activities, such as supporting environmental policies and participating in climate protests [5,7,25]. Regenerative tourism intention was measured using 7 items adopted from the RTI scale developed by Zaman [5]. Respondents indicated their likelihood of engaging in tourism behaviors that contribute positively to environmental conservation and community well-being.

Data privacy-conscious marketing was assessed through 8 items developed from privacy calculus theory and prominent studies [12,32,33,42,43], focusing on perceptions of tourists about tourism businesses’ transparency and reliability in handling consumer data during digital marketing activities. Social moral licensing was measured using 7 items developed from prominent studies [16,19,20,27,30], evaluating respondents’ tendencies to justify pro-environmental behaviors based on past moral actions. All measures utilized Likert-type response formats ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree), ensuring consistency and comparability across measures.

3.3. Data Analysis

Partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM), recognized for its suitability in exploratory research and modeling complex relationships among latent variables [7], was used for statistical analysis. PLS-SEM is particularly advantageous in this study for several reasons [44]. Firstly, it accommodates smaller samples and non-normal distributions, which is common in social science research with convenience sampling [5,7]. Secondly, PLS-SEM allows for the simultaneous estimation of measurement and structural models, which is essential for testing complex theoretical frameworks involving multiple latent variables and moderating effects [5,8,44,45].

Moreover, PLS-SEM is flexible in handling formative and reflective constructs, which is advantageous when dealing with constructs like climate advocacy, regenerative tourism intention, data privacy-conscious marketing, and social moral licensing, each with unique measurement characteristics [5,44,45]. Additionally, PLS-SEM provides insights into both direct and indirect effects, facilitating a comprehensive understanding of how climate advocacy influences regenerative tourism intention moderated by data privacy-conscious marketing and social moral licensing. By employing PLS-SEM, this study aimed to provide robust statistical evidence to support theoretical propositions and contribute valuable insights into the mechanisms underlying regenerative tourism behaviors influenced by climate advocacy, social moral licensing, and data privacy-conscious marketing [5,8,44].

4. Results

4.1. Measurement Model

The measurement model was evaluated using partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) to assess the reliability, validity, average variance extracted (AVE) values, and discriminant validity of the constructs (see

Table 1. Construct reliability and validity.

	Cronbach’s Alpha	rho_A	Composite Reliability	Average Variance Extracted (AVE)
Climate Advocacy	0.898	0.907	0.919	0.591
Data Privacy-Conscious Marketing	0.902	0.903	0.921	0.595
Regenerative Tourism Intention	0.901	0.903	0.922	0.629
Social Moral Licensing	0.897	0.908	0.918	0.615

,

Table 2. Discriminant validity—Fornell–Larcker criterion.

	Climate Advocacy	Data Privacy-Conscious Marketing	Regenerative Tourism Intention	Social Moral Licensing
Climate Advocacy	0.769
Data Privacy-Conscious Marketing	0.663	0.772
Regenerative Tourism Intention	0.516	0.426	0.793
Social Moral Licensing	0.071	−0.036	0.213	0.784

and

Table 3. Discriminant validity—HTMT criterion.

	Climate Advocacy	Data Privacy-Conscious Marketing	Regenerative Tourism Intention
Climate Advocacy
Data Privacy-Conscious Marketing	0.758
Regenerative Tourism Intention	0.556	0.47
Social Moral Licensing	0.088	0.103	0.227

). All estimations indicated statistically significant results, confirming the robustness of the measurement model, as graphically presented in Figure 1 [5,8]. Reliability analysis demonstrated high internal consistency for each construct. Cronbach’s alpha coefficients exceeded the recommended threshold of 0.70, ranging from 0.897 to 0.902, indicating the reliable measurement of climate advocacy, regenerative tourism intention, data privacy-conscious marketing, and social moral licensing. Validity assessment revealed that all constructs exhibited convergent validity. The AVE values for climate advocacy (AVE = 0.591), regenerative tourism intention (AVE = 0.629), data privacy-conscious marketing (AVE = 0.595), and social moral licensing (AVE = 0.615) exceeded the threshold of 0.50, indicating that each construct explained a substantial proportion of its variance [5,44].

Discriminant validity was established through the Fornell–Larcker criterion and cross-loading analysis. The square root of the AVE for each construct was greater than its correlations with other constructs, confirming that each construct was distinct from the others in the model [5,7].

Model-fit statistics indicated satisfactory goodness-of-fit measures. The standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) was 0.076, below the recommended threshold of 0.08, indicating a good fit of the measurement model and supporting the adequacy of the measurement model in explaining the observed data [44,45].

4.2. Structural Model

The structural model analysis using PLS-SEM revealed significant relationships and moderating effects among the constructs, as graphically presented in Figure 2 [44]. Firstly, climate advocacy positively influences regenerative tourism intention (β = 0.293, p < 0.001), confirming Hypothesis 1. This finding underscores the pivotal role of climate advocacy in promoting regenerative tourism behaviors among international tourists (see

Table 4. Hypothesis testing.

	Original Sample (O)	Sample Mean (M)	Standard Deviation (STDEV)	T Statistics	p Values
Climate Advocacy -> Regenerative Tourism Intention	0.293	0.277	0.063	4.624	0.000
DPCMxCA -> Regenerative Tourism Intention (Moderating effect)	0.14	0.149	0.043	3.271	0.001
Data Privacy-Conscious Marketing -> Regenerative Tourism Intention	0.182	0.188	0.066	2.742	0.003
SLMxCA -> Regenerative Tourism Intention (Moderating effect)	0.105	0.123	0.042	2.523	0.006
Social Moral Licensing -> Regenerative Tourism Intention	0.172	0.173	0.031	5.575	0.000

).

Secondly, data privacy-conscious marketing significantly and positively moderated the relationship between climate advocacy and regenerative tourism intention (β = 0.14, p < 0.01), supporting Hypothesis 2. The interaction effect indicated that when tourists perceive tourism businesses as trustworthy in data privacy matters, the positive influence of climate advocacy on regenerative tourism intention is strengthened.

Thirdly, social moral licensing also significantly and positively moderated the relationship between climate advocacy and regenerative tourism intention (β = 0.105, p < 0.01), validating Hypothesis 3. This finding suggests that individuals who engage in climate advocacy may perceive their actions as morally virtuous, leading to increased intentions to support regenerative tourism practices (see Figure 3).

Overall, the structural model explained 31.5% of the variance in regenerative tourism intention (R-squared = 0.315), highlighting the substantial impact of climate advocacy, data privacy-conscious marketing, and social moral licensing on tourists’ sustainable behavior intentions. These results contribute to understanding the complex interplay of individual beliefs, ethical considerations, and digital marketing strategies in fostering environmentally responsible tourism practices. Lastly, the Q2 value (Stone–Geisser Q2) was 0.194, which adequately established the predictive relevance of the model (Q2 > 0) [5,44,45].

5. Discussion

The present study corroborates previous research, indicating a positive relationship between climate advocacy and regenerative tourism intention [5,6,9]. Climate advocacy activities, such as supporting environmental policies and/or participating in climate action rallies, are associated with heightened awareness and commitment to sustainable practices among tourists. This finding aligns with prior studies that highlighted the pivotal role of environmental awareness and advocacy in shaping pro-environmental behaviors in various contexts, including tourism [3,9,14,15]. This aligns with the theory of planned behavior, which posits that attitudes and perceived behavioral control influence behavioral intentions. Climate advocacy enhances individuals’ attitudes towards environmental sustainability, thereby motivating them to seek tourism experiences that align with their values of environmental stewardship [8,10,23].

In contrast to the existing literature, the present study identifies a significant moderating effect of data privacy-conscious marketing on the relationship between climate advocacy and regenerative tourism intention [46]. While prior research has explored the impact of digital marketing strategies on consumer behavior in general, few studies have specifically examined how data privacy concerns influence the translation of environmental advocacy into tourism choices [5,9,12,33]. Our findings suggest that transparent data privacy practices enhance consumer trust and facilitate the alignment of personal values with regenerative tourism preferences, underscoring the importance of ethical marketing in fostering pro-environmental behaviors [5,11]. Drawing from consumer psychology and ethical marketing theories, such as the privacy calculus theory, our findings suggest that when tourists perceive tourism businesses as trustworthy in their data privacy practices, they are more likely to translate their environmental advocacy into actual tourism choices that support regenerative practices [5,47]. This underscores the importance of ethical marketing practices in building consumer trust and facilitating regenerative tourism behaviors [12,14,15,33].

Similarly, the present study contributes to the literature by demonstrating the moderating effect of social moral licensing on the relationship between climate advocacy and regenerative tourism intention. Building on previous studies that explored moral licensing in consumer decision-making, our findings extend this understanding to tourism contexts [5,20,27]. Climate advocates may perceive their advocacy efforts as morally virtuous, thereby feeling licensed to support regenerative tourism practices that align with their environmental values. This highlights the psychological mechanisms through which moral considerations influence regenerative tourism behaviors [10]. This finding aligns with social psychology theories (e.g., social identity theory and social moral licensing theory) that suggest individuals justify present behaviors based on past virtuous acts, highlighting the psychological mechanisms through which moral considerations influence consumer decisions in tourism contexts [10,20,27].

5.1. Theoretical and Practical Implications

The theoretical implications of the present study’s findings underscore the integration of behavioral theories, such as the theory of planned behavior and social identity theory, in understanding the complex interplay between climate advocacy and regenerative tourism intention [5,6,9,14]. These theories provide a framework for explaining how individual attitudes, subjective norms, and ethical considerations shape pro-environmental behaviors in regenerative tourism contexts. By elucidating the role of data privacy-conscious marketing and social moral licensing as moderators, the present study advances the theoretical understanding of consumer decision-making processes in regenerative tourism [8,12,27]. Practically, our findings suggest several strategies for tourism stakeholders and policymakers. First, enhancing climate advocacy initiatives through education and engagement can stimulate demand for regenerative tourism experiences. Second, implementing transparent data privacy policies and practices can build consumer trust and confidence, thereby facilitating the adoption of regenerative tourism behaviors [15,33]. Third, promoting ethical marketing strategies that resonate with consumer values of privacy and environmental responsibility can enhance the effectiveness of sustainability initiatives in the tourism sector [8,15,42].

5.2. Limitations and Recommendations

Despite its contributions, the present study has several limitations. First, the cross-sectional nature of the study design limits causal inference regarding the relationships examined. Future research employing longitudinal or experimental designs could provide deeper insights into the dynamics of climate advocacy, data privacy-conscious marketing, and regenerative tourism intention over time [14,15]. Second, the study focused on a specific demographic and geographic region (i.e., tourists in Hawaii), which may limit generalizability. Replication studies across diverse populations and contexts would enhance external validity and broaden the applicability of findings. Recommendations for future research include exploring the role of other potential moderators, such as cultural values or policy frameworks, in influencing regenerative tourism behaviors [10]. Longitudinal studies could investigate the long-term sustainability of regenerative tourism intentions and behaviors. Moreover, comparative studies across different tourism segments and regions could provide insights into cultural variations in environmental advocacy and regenerative tourism adoption [5,14].

6. Conclusions

The present study contributes to the understanding of how climate advocacy influences regenerative tourism intention, moderated by data privacy-conscious marketing and social moral licensing [9,15,17,27,42]. The findings highlight the importance of environmental advocacy in fostering regenerative tourism behaviors and underscore the role of ethical marketing practices and moral considerations in shaping consumer decisions [8,38]. Theoretical insights into behavior-change theories and practical implications for tourism stakeholders emphasize the need for integrated strategies that promote environmental responsibility while respecting consumer privacy and ethical values. Overall, this research advances knowledge in regenerative tourism and provides actionable insights for fostering a more sustainable and ethical tourism industry [3,15,39].