Perceived Greenwashing and Its Impact on the Green Image of Brands

Abstract

In contemporary society, the growing attention paid to environmental protection and sustainable development has led to an increasing demand for green products. To meet this demand, companies have widely adopt green marketing strategies aimed at attracting consumers through environmental attributes. However, the phenomenon of “greenwashing”, where companies exaggerate or mislead the public about their environmental actions, undermines consumer trust and damages brand reputation. This study explores the impact of brands’ green marketing strategies on consumers’ perception of greenwashing and green brand image through in-depth interviews and surveys. Initially, four key dimensions of brand green marketing were identified through interviews with 40 experts and industry stakeholders: products and services, communication, relationships and interaction, and commitment and values. Subsequently, data from 325 valid survey responses were collected online, and the hypotheses were tested using factor analysis and structural equation modeling. The results indicate that communication, relationships and interaction, and commitment and values effectively reduce greenwashing perception and, through this mediation, influence green brand image. This finding underscores the importance of brands avoiding false advertising in green marketing and ensuring the authenticity of their environmental information to maintain and enhance their green image.

1. Introduction

In contemporary society, environmental protection and sustainable development have become global focal points, with their importance increasingly emphasized [1]. According to a report by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), global greenhouse gas emissions continue to rise, biodiversity loss is worsening, and the overexploitation of land and water resources has led to serious environmental problems [2]. At the same time, pressure from consumers, governments, and businesses is mounting, forcing all sectors to adopt proactive measures to address these challenges.

In this context, the rise of consumer environmental awareness has become a key driver of changes in the business environment [3]. Research shows that more and more consumers are focusing on the environmental attributes of products and are willing to choose those that are environmentally friendly [4]. To meet this consumer demand, an increasing number of companies are adopting green marketing strategies, making environmental protection a core competitive advantage in product development and marketing [5]. Green marketing is not just a market strategy but also a proactive response to social responsibility by businesses. By promoting environmentally friendly products and practices, companies can meet consumers’ needs for health, safety, and environmental friendliness, thus gaining a competitive edge in the market [6].

However, the effective implementation of green marketing strategies faces several challenges, with the most prominent being the presence of “greenwashing.” Greenwashing refers to the practice where companies exaggerate or misleadingly promote their environmental actions to attract consumers, without actually taking sufficient environmental measures [7]. This behavior not only deceives consumers and harms their rights but also creates unfair competition for companies genuinely committed to environmental protection. From the consumer’s perspective, greenwashing can erode trust in green brands and, to some extent, negatively impact long-term environmental goals [8].

Therefore, it is necessary to study the intervening role of perceived greenwashing in green marketing to reduce the negative impact of instability on environmental actions. This study aims to explore the interaction and influence mechanisms between brands’ green marketing, perceived greenwashing, and green brand image. This study will analyze how green marketing strategies affect consumers’ perception of greenwashing and how this perception further shapes the green brand image. By revealing the formation mechanisms and influencing factors of perceived greenwashing, this research can help companies identify and avoid potential market risks, while providing consumers with a more informed basis for decision-making.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Brands’ Green Marketing

Green marketing was first proposed by Hennion in 1976 [9], emphasizing the identification and resolution of environmental issues, highlighting the role of marketing activities in the formation of these issues, and exploring how marketing can become a potential tool for solving them. As society pays increasing attention to environmental issues, green marketing has gradually become a key component of corporate strategy. It concerns not only the market performance of products but also the company’s commitment to social responsibility and sustainable development [10].

The effective implementation of brands’ green marketing requires companies to consider the environmental impact at every stage of the product design, production, distribution, and consumption, and to adopt corresponding measures to reduce negative impacts [11]. Examples include developing environmentally friendly products, using sustainable packaging materials, optimizing logistics and supply chain management, and promoting the environmental characteristics of products through advertising and public relations activities throughout the product life cycle. The key to a brand’s green marketing lies in building consumer trust in the brand’s environmental commitments through transparent communication and verifiable environmental practices [12]. By adopting green marketing strategies, brands not only enhance their own image but also attract a growing group of consumers who place high importance on environmental sustainability [13]. As global environmental awareness grows, the green consumer group continues to expand, creating significant market opportunities for brands implementing green marketing strategies.

However, the implementation of brands’ green marketing faces many challenges. Although green marketing can build consumer trust in the brand, over-promotion of a product’s environmental attributes may lead to controversy known as “greenwashing” [14]. Such behavior not only undermines the foundation of consumer trust but may also damage the credibility of green marketing across the entire industry.

Additionally, brands must consider cost issues when implementing green marketing [10]. The development and production of environmentally friendly products may require higher costs, potentially affecting product pricing and market competitiveness. Brands need to find ways to balance costs and prices while maintaining environmental commitments to ensure the competitiveness of their products in the market.

The Environmental Protection Administration of Taiwan categorizes green marketing into seven levels to help the public discern and monitor the authenticity of green marketing. (1) Level 1: the product meets environmental standards in all aspects, from raw material extraction, manufacturing, design, packaging, consumer use, and after-sales service. (2) The product meets environmental standards in design, packaging, consumer use, and after-sales service. (3) The product only meets environmental standards in consumer use and after-sales service. (4) The product only meets environmental standards in after-sales service. (5) Corporate image advertisements promote environmental concepts, contributing to environmental education. (6) Public service advertisements showcase environmental concepts, appeals, and practices. (7) Riding the wave of environmental trends to enhance and shape corporate image. Therefore, different companies or brands can assess their green marketing efforts against this classification to determine their level of green marketing.

2.2. Perceived Greenwashing

The concept of “greenwashing” was first proposed by Jay Westerveld in 1986, referring to the behavior of companies or organizations that exaggerate or misleadingly display their contributions to environmental protection in their promotional materials, while in reality, they do not adopt sufficient environmental measures or their actions do not match their environmental claims [15]. This is a marketing practice that misleads consumers into believing they are purchasing products or services with environmental benefits [16]. Therefore, perceived greenwashing is interpreted as the identification and perception by consumers or the public of false or misleading statements made by companies regarding their environmental actions [17], which is a negative perception factor. This perception reflects people’s skepticism about the authenticity of a company’s green marketing efforts and their doubts about whether the company is truly fulfilling its environmental protection responsibilities [18]. In the current context of increasing environmental awareness, perceived greenwashing has become an important indicator for measuring corporate social responsibility practices and consumer trust.

Guo and others attribute the spread of perceived greenwashing to various external organizational and individual issues [19]. Generally, enhanced social supervision and policy regulation can improve the visibility and credibility standards of corporate environmental behavior [20]. Companies must ensure that their actual environmental actions are consistent with their promotional effects and enhance their credibility through transparent information disclosure and reliable third-party certification. Personal factors also play a significant role in the formation of perceived greenwashing. Consumers’ environmental awareness, knowledge, and experience all influence their interpretation and reaction to corporate environmental claims. Consumers with higher environmental awareness are more likely to critically evaluate a company’s environmental actions, while those with a deep understanding of environmental issues are less likely to be affected by greenwashing behavior [21]. Therefore, companies need to consider the needs and expectations of different consumers when formulating and implementing environmental strategies and use various methods to increase consumers’ environmental awareness and participation.

Despite the attention greenwashing has received from numerous scholars over the past decade, most explorations and discussions have centered on consumers’ skepticism toward green products rather than the perceptual impact of greenwashing itself on consumers [22,23,24]. Baum et al. [25] argued that although it is an indisputable fact that brands use greenwashing strategies for promotion, there is still very little research on how such promotions affect consumers’ perception of greenwashing and the resulting attitudes. Therefore, this study considers it necessary to further explore consumers’ psychological perceptions of corporate and brand greenwashing behaviors.

2.3. Green Brand Image

A green brand image refers to consumers’ overall perception and evaluation of a brand’s efforts in terms of environmental protection and sustainable development [26]. As environmental awareness increases, consumers are placing greater importance on a brand’s green image, which not only influences their purchasing decisions but is also crucial to the brand’s market competitiveness and long-term development [27]. The establishment of a green brand image is a systematic process, requiring companies to demonstrate their environmental commitment in all aspects of the product design, production, packaging, logistics, and market communication [28].

In their research, Zhou et al. highlighted that a green brand image reflects a company’s attitude toward environmental protection and helps the company stand out in a competitive market, as a strong green brand image makes the company a preferred choice for consumers when purchasing products [29]. Aivazidou et al. also pointed out that a strong green corporate image is particularly important for traditional industries with high levels of pollution, as it can improve company performance by enhancing the green brand image [30].

From a consumer perspective, Mourad et al. found that there is a strong and positive connection between a green brand image and consumer preference. Building a green brand image guides consumers to fulfill their desire to contribute to environmental protection through their purchases, thereby influencing their preference for green brands [31]. Additionally, Bashir et al. demonstrated the positive relationship between brand image and consumer trust [32]. However, while companies may promote environmental practices to enhance their green brand image and attract consumers [32], the effectiveness of marketing communication remains unclear. This may be due to consumers feeling that they lack sufficient knowledge to verify the information conveyed by companies. This suggests that consumers may be skeptical of green brand images, potentially suspecting greenwashing [33].

The relationship between brands’ green marketing, perceived greenwashing, and green brand image is closely related. Some scholars believe that a brand’s green marketing can enhance the brand’s green image through measures such as developing environmentally friendly products, using sustainable packaging materials, and optimizing supply chain management [34]. However, if a brand exaggerates or misleads concerning its environmental contributions during promotion, which is known as “greenwashing”, it may lead to consumers’ perception of greenwashing, thereby damaging the brand’s credibility and green image [35]. Perceived greenwashing reflects consumers’ doubts about the authenticity and consistency of a brand’s environmental claims, which can weaken their trust in the brand and negatively affect the brand’s overall image.

Moreover, the formation of a green brand image is influenced by various factors [12], including the brand’s internal environmental practices and external social opinions and policies. Brands need to ensure that their environmental actions are consistent with their promotional claims and enhance their credibility through transparent communication and third-party certification. Additionally, consumers’ environmental awareness and knowledge levels also influence their perception and evaluation of a brand’s green image [26]. By engaging in authentic and transparent green marketing, brands not only reduce the negative impact of perceived greenwashing but also build and maintain a positive green brand image, thereby enhancing their market competitiveness.

3. Research Design and Data Collection

3.1. Research Framework

Since “brand green marketing” is a relatively broad concept that encompasses various elements, it is necessary to confirm the specific research content using scientific research methods. Therefore, this study is divided into two parts. In the first part (Study 1), expert interviews are conducted to identify the specific dimensions and scales of brands’ green marketing. Following that, a survey questionnaire is distributed, and a factor analysis is performed to validate the findings. In the second part (Study 2), hypotheses are proposed based on the literature about the potential relationships between various influencing factors (constructs). A questionnaire is then designed, incorporating the established scales for the two constructs of perceived greenwashing and green brand image, and a consumer survey is conducted to collect relevant perception evaluations. Finally, structural equation modeling is used to confirm and verify the causal relationships between the influencing factors.

3.2. Expert Interviews

In the first part, we conducted in-depth interviews with 40 scholars, manufacturers, and stakeholders who are knowledgeable about brands’ green marketing. The goal was to preliminarily identify the specific perception dimensions and indicators within brands’ green marketing and to gain a deeper understanding of how brands’ green marketing is perceived. To ensure rigor and academic integrity, the following process was adopted.

First, purposive sampling was used to select 40 relevant individuals as respondents. These respondents possess substantial experience and knowledge in relation to brands’ green marketing, ensuring that we could obtain professional and in-depth perspectives, which would help us comprehensively understand brands’ green marketing.

A semi-structured interview guide was designed based on the literature reviews and discussion results, aimed at gathering expert opinions and insights on the dimensions of brands’ green marketing.

Table 1. Semi-structured interview content (excerpt).

Dimension	Item	Question
Basic Information	A-1	What is your name?
	A-2	What is your background and relevant professional experience?
	A-3	What organization or institution do you currently work for?
	A-4	How long have you been in your current role?
Brands’ Green Marketing	B-1	What dimensions do you believe brands’ green marketing encompasses? How should it be evaluated?
	B-2	How well do you think your product (or a certain product) performs in terms of green marketing?
	B-3	What other aspects should be considered in brands’ green marketing? Can you elaborate (open-ended question)?

below outlines a selection of the content from the semi-structured interview guide.

Next, an in-depth interview guide was developed, including themes, questions, and potential perception dimensions. During the interviews, a three-phase approach was used. In the first phase, trust and rapport were established, and the research purpose and confidentiality were explained to the respondents, ensuring they fully understood and agreed to participate in the study. The second phase was the main interview, where the respondents were guided by the questions in the interview guide to share their experiences, perceptions, emotions, and views. At the end of each interview, the responses were summarized, and the respondents were asked for feedback or additional insights. All the interviews were recorded and meticulously documented. A qualitative analysis was conducted using thematic analysis to classify and summarize the interview content according to the themes and perception dimensions. The research team repeatedly discussed and validated these to ensure the accurate identification and definition of perception dimensions and indicators.

Table 2. Summary of expert interview findings.

Code	Key Findings
A	Green brands must provide eco-friendly products with attributes like sustainable packaging and recycling, covering multiple areas.
B	In marketing, the environmental friendliness of a product is not limited to the product itself but extends to the entire production chain, such as using biodegradable packaging materials.
C	Green brands clearly communicate the features of eco-friendly products through social media and digital marketing, enhancing promotional effectiveness and expanding market reach.
D	Green brands ensure that their environmental marketing information is intuitive and easy to understand, conveying their environmental policies and product characteristics.
E	Green brands should actively participate in discussions on environmental topics on social media to increase user interaction.
F	Brands should find ways to ensure that consumers gain a deeper understanding of their green information and correctly interpret its meaning.
G	Green brands should regularly engage in multi-faceted interactions with consumers, providing feedback and responses on product information, usage, and services, to enhance consumer trust and loyalty.
H	Green brands lead in environmental technology innovation, continually improving product design and energy-saving technologies. They should also promote transparency in environmental policies and practices to build consumer trust.
I	The goal of brands’ green marketing should be to foster consumer recognition of the brand’s environmental efforts, making the brand’s products trustworthy and worthy of support.

below is a summary of the key findings from the expert interviews.

Through the in-depth interviews, we gathered a wealth of relevant data, laying the foundation for the subsequent research. This process followed strict academic methodologies to ensure the reliability of the data and the scientific nature of the research. These preliminary results helped us gain a deeper understanding of the relevant knowledge, pathways, and factors of brand green marketing, as well as how to measure and evaluate them.

3.3. Questionnaire Design and Research Hypotheses

Based on the analysis and refinement of the expert interview content, this study identified the specific dimensions and evaluation scales of brands’ green marketing, as shown in

Table 3. Brands’ green marketing scale.

Dimension	Indicator	Measurement Items
Green attributes of products and services	PS1	The types and range of green products offered by the brand and their uniqueness in the market.
	PS2	The quality and performance of green products, such as their environmental benefits, durability, etc.
	PS3	The innovation and competitive advantage of green products, i.e., the brand’s leading position in green product development.
	PS4	The characteristics and quality of green services, e.g., whether the brand’s environmental services meet consumer needs and have high credibility.
Communication	COM1	The clarity of the brand’s environmental product claims and promotional effectiveness in advertisements.
	COM2	The clarity and accuracy of environmental marketing information, including whether the brand’s environmental policies and product features are communicated in an easily understandable way.
	COM3	The level of engagement and interactivity in social media and digital marketing, such as discussions and interactions on environmental topics on social media platforms.
	COM4	The awareness and understanding of the brand’s environmental information by consumers, i.e., whether consumers are aware of and correctly understand the brand’s green marketing messages.
Relationship and interaction	RI1	The frequency and depth of interactions between the brand and consumers, e.g., whether the brand regularly interacts with consumers and provides feedback and responses.
	RI2	The level of consumer participation in environmental activities and community projects, i.e., whether consumers actively participate in environmental activities or advocacy organized by the brand.
	RI3	The trust and loyalty between the brand and consumers, including the level of consumer trust in the brand’s environmental commitments and brand loyalty.
Value and commitment	VC1	The brand’s environmental value proposition and commitment, i.e., whether the brand’s attitude and stance on environmental issues are recognized by consumers.
	VC2	The transparency and credibility of the brand’s environmental policies, including whether the brand openly and transparently discloses its environmental policies and practices, and the level of consumer trust in them.
	VC3	The brand’s innovation and leadership in environmental protection, i.e., whether the brand is a leader in environmental technology, product design, etc.
	VC4	The level of consumer recognition and identification with the brand’s environmental values, i.e., whether consumers believe that the brand’s environmental efforts are trustworthy and worthy of support.

.

Based on the further clarification of the dimensions of brands’ green marketing, this study extends hypotheses H1 and H3 as follows:

H1a. 

Products and services positively influence perceived greenwashing.

H1b. 

Products and services positively influence green brand image.

H2a. 

Communication positively influences perceived greenwashing.

H2b. 

Communication positively influences green brand image.

H3a. 

Relationship and interaction positively influence perceived greenwashing.

H3b. 

Relationship and interaction positively influence green brand image.

H4a. 

Value and commitment positively influence perceived greenwashing.

H4b. 

Value and commitment positively influence green brand image.

H5. 

Perceived greenwashing positively influences green brand image.

Based on the above hypotheses, a research hypothesis diagram is shown in Figure 1.

The final questionnaire consists of three parts: the first part includes the basic information of the respondents; the second part is the brands’ green marketing scale; and the third part is the evaluation scale for perceived greenwashing and green brand image. The measurement items for these two variables are based on mature scales, as shown in

Table 4. Perceived greenwashing and green brand image scale.

Latent Variable	Measurement Item	Source
Greenwashing	I doubt the authenticity of the environmental information promoted by the brand.	[24]
	I feel there is a discrepancy between the brand’s actual environmental actions and its promotion.
	I hold a positive attitude toward the brand’s claimed environmental products or services.
Green brand image	The performance of the brand’s green products meets my expectations.	[36]
	The brand’s green products align with my environmental values.
	The brand demonstrates a certain level of environmental commitment in its products and marketing activities.

.

3.4. Participants

Based on the questionnaire design from Study 1 and Study 2, we distributed the survey through online recruitment between January and April 2024 to consumers with relevant experience. In addition to basic demographic information, the survey utilized a 7-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). All the respondents clicked the survey link to review the research description. They voluntarily answered the research questions and were free to withdraw from the survey at any time. Therefore, all the participants agreed to fill out the questionnaire based on the principles of informed consent and voluntary participation.

In total, 400 responses were collected for this study. After excluding invalid responses (due to logical errors or excessive repetition of the same option), 325 valid samples remained. The questionnaire contained 21 items, and the 325 valid questionnaires met Jackson’s criterion that the ratio of the estimated parameters to the number of samples (p:n) should exceed 1:10 in the maximum likelihood estimation [37]. This ensured that the subsequent data analysis could proceed accordingly. A statistical analysis of the demographic variables from the valid questionnaires is shown in

Table 5. Demographic statistics.

Category	Item	Number	Percentage
Gender	Male	62	19.9%
	Female	263	80.1%
Age	19–29	55	26.9%
	30–39	145	44.6%
	40–49	75	23.1%
	50 and above	50	15.4%
Marital Status	Married	298	91.7%
	Unmarried	27	8.3%
Monthly Income	Below 4000	15	4.6%
	4001–8000	188	57.8%
	8001–16,000	63	19.4%
	16,001–30,000	31	9.5%
	Above 30,001	28	8.6%
Education Level	Junior high school or below	3	0.9%
	High school or technical school	27	8.3%
	Bachelor or associate degree	215	66.2%
	Master’s degree or above	80	24.6%

.

4. Results

4.1. Study 1: Exploring the Sub-Dimensions of Brands’ Green Marketing

4.1.1. Exploratory Factor Analysis

To verify the rationality of brands’ green marketing, this part of the questionnaire data were subjected to exploratory factor analysis. The Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) value was 0.888, and the Bartlett’s test of sphericity approximate chi-square value was 2368.276, with 105 degrees of freedom (df) and a p-value of 0.000, reaching a significant level. These results support the applicability of factor analysis. As shown in

Table 6. Results of the exploratory factor analysis.

Indicator	Factor Loading				Communality
	Factor 1	Factor 2	Factor 3	Factor 4
PS1	0.066	0.778	0.087	0.216	0.664
PS2	0.087	0.777	0.192	0.227	0.700
PS3	0.183	0.726	0.284	0.119	0.655
PS4	0.394	0.617	0.058	0.210	0.582
COM1	0.757	0.104	0.025	0.247	0.646
COM2	0.809	0.192	0.129	0.155	0.732
COM3	0.629	0.188	0.317	0.193	0.568
COM4	0.690	0.085	0.235	0.154	0.562
RI1	0.149	0.192	0.785	0.167	0.703
RI2	0.230	0.184	0.824	0.123	0.781
RI3	0.131	0.113	0.845	0.139	0.763
VC1	0.151	0.261	0.333	0.615	0.580
VC2	0.344	0.370	0.078	0.627	0.653
VC3	0.203	0.161	0.086	0.801	0.717
VC4	0.219	0.178	0.166	0.815	0.771

, the four factors extracted from the 15 variables correspond to the perception dimensions and indicators constructed in this study, explaining 67.185% of the total variance, exceeding the ideal threshold of 60%.

4.1.2. Confirmatory Factor Analysis (Study 1)

A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted to further test the convergent and discriminant validity of the scales. The results showed that all the composite reliability (CR) values were greater than 0.7 [38] and the average variance extracted (AVE) values were greater than 0.36 [39], indicating good convergent validity. As shown in

Table 7. Results of convergent validity tests (Study 1).

Factor	Item	Unstd.	Std.	z	p	S.E.	AVE	CR
Green attributes of products and services	PS1	1.000	-	-	-	0.688	0.502	0.801
	PS2	1.024	0.086	11.877	0.000	0.757
	PS3	1.016	0.089	11.433	0.000	0.719
	PS4	0.812	0.076	10.726	0.000	0.666
Communication	COM1	1.000	-	-	-	0.696	0.498	0.798
	COM2	1.076	0.088	12.209	0.000	0.780
	COM3	0.989	0.089	11.141	0.000	0.691
	COM4	0.912	0.086	10.548	0.000	0.648
Relationship and interaction	RI1	1.000	-	-	-	0.757	0.647	0.845
	RI2	1.106	0.073	15.072	0.000	0.877
	RI3	1.050	0.075	14.022	0.000	0.772
Value and commitment	VC1	1.000	-	-	-	0.662	0.547	0.828
	VC2	1.215	0.101	12.028	0.000	0.772
	VC3	1.062	0.093	11.373	0.000	0.718
	VC4	1.171	0.095	12.311	0.000	0.798

, the factor loadings, CR values, and AVE values met the standards, indicating that the variables demonstrated good convergent validity. According to Fornell and Larcker [39], if the square root of each factor’s AVE value is greater than the correlation coefficient with other factors, the scale demonstrates good discriminant validity. As shown in

Table 8. Results of the discriminant validity tests (Study 2).

	PS	COM	RI	VC
Products and services	0.708
Communication	0.471	0.705
Relationship and interaction	0.441	0.448	0.804
Value and commitment	0.592	0.568	0.444	0.739

, the square root of the AVE values of the variables (indicated by the bold diagonal numbers) was greater than the correlation coefficients between the other variables, indicating the good discriminant validity of the scales.

4.2. Study 2: Determining the Path Relationships between Influencing Factors

4.2.1. Reliability Analysis

This study used SPSS v22 software to conduct a reliability analysis concerning each variable. The results, as shown in

Table 9. Results of the reliability analysis.

Construct	Item	Corrected Item-to-Total Correlation	Cronbach’s α after Deletion	Cronbach’s α
Green attributes of products and services	PS1	0.611	0.748	0.798
	PS2	0.668	0.719
	PS3	0.618	0.744
	PS4	0.551	0.776
Communication	COM1	0.587	0.753	0.795
	COM2	0.676	0.709
	COM3	0.592	0.750
	COM4	0.568	0.762
Relationship and interaction	RI1	0.674	0.811	0.842
	RI2	0.755	0.735
	RI3	0.694	0.794
Value and commitment	VC1	0.568	0.813	0.823
	VC2	0.646	0.778
	VC3	0.649	0.776
	VC4	0.73	0.739
Perceived greenwashing	GW1	0.663	0.745	0.813
	GW2	0.692	0.717
	GW3	0.638	0.769
Brand image	BI1	0.593	0.802	0.807
	BI2	0.715	0.675
	BI3	0.663	0.729

, indicate that all the Cronbach’s α coefficients of the factors were greater than 0.7 [40], demonstrating good reliability and meeting the requirements for further data analysis.

4.2.2. Confirmatory Factor Analysis (Study 2)

A confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to test the convergent and discriminant validity of the model. As shown in

Table 10. Results of the convergent validity tests (Study 2).

Factor	Item	Unstd.	p	Std.	SMC	AVE	CR
Green attributes of products and services	PS1	1.000	-	0.690	0.476	0.502	0.801
	PS2	1.022	0.000	0.757	0.573
	PS3	1.017	0.000	0.722	0.522
	PS4	0.805	0.000	0.661	0.437
Communication	COM1	1.000	-	0.684	0.468	0.498	0.798
	COM2	1.096	0.000	0.781	0.610
	COM3	1.014	0.000	0.697	0.485
	COM4	0.934	0.000	0.653	0.426
Relationship and interaction	RI1	1.000	-	0.760	0.577	0.647	0.845
	RI2	1.101	0.000	0.877	0.769
	RI3	1.043	0.000	0.771	0.594
Value and commitment	VC1	1.000	-	0.665	0.443	0.547	0.828
	VC2	1.203	0.000	0.769	0.591
	VC3	1.068	0.000	0.726	0.527
	VC4	1.155	0.000	0.791	0.626
Perceived greenwashing	GW1	1.000	-	0.757	0.573	0.595	0.815
	GW2	0.981	0.000	0.809	0.654
	GW3	0.974	0.000	0.748	0.559
Brand image	BI1	1.000	-	0.723	0.522	0.594	0.814
	BI2	1.067	0.000	0.816	0.666
	BI3	1.030	0.000	0.771	0.594

, the CR values were all greater than 0.7, and the AVE values were greater than 0.36, indicating good convergent validity. As shown in

Table 11. Results of the discriminant validity tests (Study 2).

	PS	COM	RI	VC	GW	BI
Green attributes of products and services	0.709
Communication	0.471	0.705
Relationship and interaction	0.441	0.448	0.804
Value and commitment	0.592	0.568	0.444	0.739
Perceived greenwashing	−0.454	−0.522	−0.427	−0.571	0.772
Brand image	0.431	0.470	0.405	0.493	−0.562	0.771

, the square root of the AVE values of the variables (indicated by the bold diagonal numbers) was greater than the correlation coefficients between the other variables, indicating the good discriminant validity of the scales.

4.2.3. Path Analysis

This study employed AMOS 24 software to conduct the structural equation modeling analysis. The results, as shown in

Table 12. Results of the path analysis.

Hypotheses	X	→	Y	Unstd.	SE	z	p	Std.
H1a	PS	→	GW	−0.049	0.096	−0.513	0.608	−0.046
H1b	PS	→	BI	0.084	0.104	0.805	0.421	0.074
H2a	COM	→	GW	−0.322	0.105	−3.082	0.002	−0.268
H2b	COM	→	BI	0.225	0.116	1.934	0.053	0.178
H3a	RI	→	GW	−0.162	0.072	−2.257	0.024	−0.151
H3b	RI	→	BI	0.094	0.078	1.196	0.232	0.083
H4a	VC	→	GW	−0.498	0.130	−3.836	0.000	−0.393
H4b	VC	→	BI	0.075	0.145	0.519	0.604	0.056
H5	GW	→	BI	−0.450	0.099	−4.563	0.000	−0.429

and Figure 2, support hypotheses H2a, H3a, H4a, and H5, while the remaining hypotheses are not supported.

5. Conclusions and Discussion

5.1. Main Findings

Through in-depth expert interviews and factor analysis, this study identified the intrinsic factors of brands’ green marketing, which are the four dimensions of products and services, communication and dissemination, relationships and interaction, and value and commitment. The structural equation model was used to explore the impact of these dimensions of brands’ green marketing on perceived greenwashing and green brand image. Based on the reliability and validity analysis of the questionnaire data, some of the hypotheses were validated. Below is a detailed discussion of the results for each hypothesis.

H1a and H1b were not supported, indicating that the attributes of products and services in brands’ green marketing do not influence perceived greenwashing and green brand image. Contrary to our expectations, consumers’ perceptions of the green attributes of a brand’s products and services did not significantly affect their awareness of greenwashing nor significantly enhance the brand’s green image. This may reflect insufficient consumer sensitivity to the green attributes of products and services, or perhaps brands have not fully utilized the potential of promoting these green attributes. Theoretically, the green attributes of products and services, as a core component of brands’ green marketing, are generally considered fundamental in shaping a green brand image [41]. However, the findings of this study suggest that relying solely on the green attributes of products and services may not be sufficient to effectively shape a brand’s green image. This implies that when promoting green products and services, brands may need to focus more on other dimensions of green marketing strategies, such as effective green communication and enhancing consumer trust in the brand’s green commitments.

H2a was supported, but H2b was not. This indicates that communication and dissemination in brands’ green marketing have a negative impact on consumers’ perceived greenwashing but do not have a positive impact on the green brand image. This shows that through communication and dissemination, brands can raise consumer awareness of greenwashing behaviors. This may be because, during green marketing, if a brand’s communication accurately reflects its green practices, consumers are less likely to doubt the brand’s environmental actions. While companies aim to promote their brands through various means, as consumers become more concerned about environmental issues, brands must ensure the authenticity and transparency of the information they disseminate to reduce consumers’ perception of greenwashing [42]. However, the positive impact of communication and dissemination on green brand image is not significant, possibly because the effectiveness of communication may be limited by the content and form of the information dissemination. Different consumers obtain information through different channels, and their understanding of various pieces of information also varies. Therefore, in the process of communication, brands need to focus not only on the coverage of the information but also on its quality and depth to enhance their green brand image.

H3a was supported, but H3b was not. This suggests that relationships and interaction in brands’ green marketing have a negative impact on consumers’ perceived greenwashing but do not significantly positively influence the green brand image. Generally, good interaction between brands and consumers can reduce consumers’ perception of greenwashing to some extent, as positive interaction can increase consumer trust in the brand’s green commitments. This aligns with Skard et al.’s research, which suggests that effective, specific interactions are more likely to be appreciated by consumers [43]. However, while interaction helps reduce perceived greenwashing, its effect on enhancing the green brand image is not significant. This may be because, although interaction builds a certain level of trust, this trust does not necessarily translate into a significant enhancement of the brand’s green image, which may require a combination of other green marketing strategies to strengthen the brand’s green image.

H4a was supported, but H4b was not. This indicates that the value and commitment dimension of brands’ green marketing negatively impacts consumers’ perceived greenwashing but does not significantly positively influence the green brand image. The result of H4a shows that consumers have high expectations regarding the authenticity of a brand’s green value and commitments. If a brand fails to fulfill its green commitments, it will significantly increase consumers’ perception of greenwashing, which is consistent with the findings of Butt et al. [44]. Particularly, when green brands meet consumers’ environmental demands, consumers may be willing to pay higher prices to support green brands, implying that green brands hold greater value in the eyes of these consumers [43]. On the other hand, the result of H4b indicates that although the green value and commitments of a brand do not have a significant direct impact on the green brand image, this may be because consumers view green commitments as a basic responsibility of the brand rather than as a differentiating competitive advantage. Therefore, brands need to continuously improve their green commitments to enhance the practical value of their green efforts.

H5 was supported, showing that perceived greenwashing has a significant negative impact on the green brand image. This result is consistent with Akturan’s research [45], highlighting consumers’ sensitivity to greenwashing behaviors by brands. It indicates that once consumers perceive a brand as engaging in greenwashing, their evaluation of the brand’s green image will significantly decline. This further emphasizes that brands should avoid false green commitments in their green marketing and ensure that all their green activities and information are authentic and transparent to maintain the brand’s green image.

It is noteworthy that the factors involved in brands’ green marketing, except for products and services, do not have a direct impact on the green brand image. Instead, they influence it indirectly through perceived greenwashing. This may suggest that, in the minds of consumers, the effectiveness of brands’ green marketing does not depend solely on the direct contribution of individual dimensions but rather on the combined effects of multiple factors. Brands need to comprehensively apply strategies in terms of communication and dissemination, relationships and interaction, as well as value and commitment, to reduce perceived greenwashing and thereby indirectly enhance their green brand image.

5.2. Theoretical Contributions

The theoretical contributions of this study lie in revealing the complex relationships between the different dimensions of brands’ green marketing, perceived greenwashing, and green brand image. Although some hypotheses were not validated, the research results provide important insights for related research directions. Through empirical analysis, this study systematically examined the four core dimensions of brand green marketing—products and services, communication, relationships and interaction, and value and commitment. This provides a clear framework for understanding the multidimensional structure of brands’ green marketing and highlights the differing roles of each dimension in shaping consumers’ green brand impressions.

The finding that the products and services dimension does not significantly influence consumers’ perceptions of greenwashing and green brand image challenges the previous literature, which generally assumes a direct positive impact of green product and service attributes on brand image. This finding suggests that researchers need to reconsider the true value of green attributes in green marketing and further explore the boundary conditions and potential reasons for their insignificant effects.

Additionally, this study confirmed the negative impact of communication, relationships and interaction, and value and commitment on perceived greenwashing, while revealing that their positive impact on green brand image is not direct but is instead mediated by perceived greenwashing. This finding extends the theoretical understanding of how green marketing strategies influence consumer perceptions and emphasizes the importance of reducing consumer perceptions of greenwashing in green marketing.

5.3. Practical Implications

In green marketing practice, brands need to comprehensively consider strategies across various dimensions, ensuring that their communication strategies effectively convey the green attributes of products, while also establishing good relationships with consumers and maintaining transparency and consistency to enhance the credibility of their green commitments.

Brands should avoid greenwashing behaviors. The research results show that perceived greenwashing has a significant negative impact on green brand image. In practical terms, this means that brands should avoid exaggerated or false environmental claims, as once consumers detect these, it will not only damage the brand’s green image but also potentially have long-term negative effects on the brand’s overall reputation. Conversely, brands should honestly promote their green practices and ensure that all their environmental claims are verifiable and specific.

In terms of the various dimensions of green marketing, brands need to pay special attention to consumer interaction and relationship building. The research results show that relationships and interaction have the most significant effect on reducing perceived greenwashing but do not directly enhance green brand image. This suggests that merely establishing good relationships with consumers is not enough; brands also need to strengthen consumers’ brand loyalty through consistent and coherent green actions. Brands can engage in continuous interaction with consumers through social media, customer service, and community involvement to ensure that their green strategy aligns with consumer expectations. Brands should also continually monitor the effectiveness of their green marketing strategies and adjust them based on market feedback and changes in consumer attitudes. By conducting regular environmental impact assessments, consumer surveys, and market analyses, brands can continuously optimize their green marketing mix to achieve better environmental and brand value.

5.4. Limitations and Future Research Recommendations

The limitations of this study and the recommendations for future research are as follows.

The data collection in this study primarily relied on questionnaire surveys and quantitative methods, which may not fully capture consumers’ perceptions and emotional responses to the nuances of green marketing. Future research could use mixed methods, combining qualitative research such as in-depth interviews and case studies, to provide richer data and deeper insights.

Although the structural equation model used in this study helps understand the relationships between the variables, it may not fully reflect the complex dynamic relationship between green marketing and consumer perceptions. Future research could consider using longitudinal study designs to explore changes in the effectiveness of green marketing strategies over time and their long-term impacts.

Future research could be expanded to different industries to explore the application and effectiveness of green marketing in various sectors, such as comparing resource-intensive industries with technology-driven industries. This could reveal the industry-specific differences that influence the effectiveness of green marketing strategies.