The Role of Digital Agriculture in Mitigating Climate Change and Ensuring Food Security: An Overview

Abstract

Digital agriculture involving different tools and management practices has advanced considerably in recent years, intending to overcome climate risk and reduce food insecurity. Climate change and its impacts on agricultural production and food security are significant sources of public concern worldwide. The objective of this study was to provide an overview of the potential impact of digital agriculture technologies and practices that can reduce greenhouse gas emissions and enhance productivity while ensuring food security. Based on a comprehensive survey of the previously published works, it was found that due to global warming, altered precipitation patterns, and an increase in the frequency of extreme events, climate change has negatively impacted food security by reducing agricultural yields, slowing animal growth rates, and decreasing livestock productivity. The reviewed works also suggest that using digital technology in agriculture is necessary to mitigate the effect of climate change and food insecurity. In addition, issues regarding creating sustainable agricultural food systems, minimizing environmental pollution, increasing yields, providing fair and equitable food distribution, and reducing malnutrition leading to food security were discussed in detail. It was shown that while digital agriculture has a crucial role in mitigating climate change and ensuring food security, it requires a concerted effort from policymakers, researchers, and farmers to ensure that the benefits of digitalization are realized in a sustainable and equitable manner.

1. Introduction

The use of automation and control systems, data processing software, web-based applications, and mobile tools have shaped farming methods in the past 30 years with the primary objective of increasing efficiency from the lands and resources. Until 2010, growers had to rely on Global Positioning System (GPS), ground-based sensing platforms, satellite maps, and local sensing devices such as data loggers to monitor their fields and identify deficiencies. With the emergence of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV), low-powered long-range wireless sensors, Internet of Things (IoT) gadgets, and robotics, digital agriculture (DA) and smart farming methods shifted toward digitization [1]. They contributed to the economic development and sustainability of food production. Figure 1 demonstrates the main workflow in precision agriculture (PA) and the building blocks of digital farming. PA employs raw data from various sources, including satellite images, in situ sensors, and mobile sensing platforms, to determine deficiencies and improve crop yield via better management of the resources (i.e., variable rate technology).

On the other hand, DA incorporates a wider variety of technological advances such as robotics, drone technology, wireless systems, IoT-based automation, and mobile apps to continuously monitor, evaluate, and manage soil conditions, water resources, and weather fluctuations on the farmlands to enhance field productivity and reduce operation costs [1,2]. Examples include using satellites and high-resolution UAV imagery for monitoring crop water level and quality, determining soil moisture and soil salinity, creating NVDI and yield maps, and health assessment and crop stress identification. On the automation side, wireless sensors and IoT devices have contributed to deploying smart irrigation, water loss management, and continuous identification of soil nutrient contents in remote areas.

Figure 1. A comparison between building blocks of precision agriculture and digital agriculture [3].

Figure 1. A comparison between building blocks of precision agriculture and digital agriculture [3].

The fundamentals for DA began to take shape after 2010, with some of the core concepts, such as the IoT and UAV, gaining popularity, which redefined the existing ideas of PA and smart farming. This has freed the human force labor from tedious field work and created added value for sustainable food production. Climate change, global warming, and water scarcity affect agricultural productivity and can significantly reduce crop yields [4]. Reports indicate that nearly one-quarter of the worldwide greenhouse gas emissions come from crop cultivation and livestock farming. The inputs and outputs of DA that have evolved based on data streams and flexible data-sharing services are contributing to mitigation strategies for climate change by providing a series of scientific solutions towards reducing pesticide usage and chemical fertilizers and minimizing energy demands [5]. With the advances in wireless communication and high-performance data processing hardware, future farms are expected to be entirely connected. In this regard, DA offers significant potential to replace conventional farming methods with cutting-edge technologies that reduce carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions [6].

Climate change encompasses both global warming and large-scale shifts in weather patterns. The greenhouse gas effect is the major process responsible for global warming. Fossil fuel burning for energy is an essential source of greenhouse gas emissions besides agriculture, deforestation, and manufacturing. Climate change’s main concerns are elevated temperature and carbon dioxide levels, including rainfall variability [6]. The atmospheric carbon dioxide growth rate was 2.3 ppm per year during 2009–18 as compared to 0.6 ± 0.1 ppm per year during the 1960s, with the current global atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration of 409.8 ± 0.1 ppm during 2019 [7]. Increased CO₂ emissions into the atmosphere have driven the Earth’s mean surface temperature rise of 1.18 °C since the late 19th century [8].

Similarly, due to variations in atmospheric water vapor, the water cycle is projected to strengthen with rising temperatures, potentially increasing the intensity of extreme rainfall and the risk of flooding [9]. These factors are critical determinants of agriculture, and the magnitude of variation in those factors will severely threaten food production. Changing climate is a key drive influencing agriculture production and food security worldwide. In recent years, the range of plant and animal species and their seasonal activity has shifted due to climate change [10]. It can disrupt agriculture in several ways, viz., productivity, quality, crop growth rate, moisture and nutrient availability and uptake, photosynthesis and transpiration rate, altered duration, etc. [6]. In addition, global warming’s immediate effects, such as hurricanes, floods, droughts, disease spread, and ecosystem change, will indirectly influence agriculture production [11]. In this context, food production and security will stand out as haunting issues with ever-increasing demand from the increasing population.

Digital agriculture not only offers new technologies, but the use of these technologies provides a better and more accurate farm management system and information fusion. Besides increased profitability due to better management practices and the development of information systems in agriculture, digital agriculture provides various benefits, including increased product quality, improved sustainability, lower risk in the management system, food safety using product traceability, environment protection, and rural development. The main objective of this study was to take these benefits into account and provide an overview on the role of digital agriculture as a climate-smart technology in supporting food security, as well as identifying the limitations and challenges in different food production and management sections.

2. Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture

Alteration in the climatic pattern is a long-term and severe global issue that influences the current and future status of the world. Although climate change can be interpreted from various perspectives, this phenomenon is mainly defined when the atmospheric CO₂ is higher than 400 ppm; this can increase air temperature, significant and abrupt changes in yearly, seasonal, and daily temperature, changes in dry and wet cycles, extreme frost, and extending drought time [12]. Climate change is expected to considerably link to different aspects of agriculture, including crop production, soil properties, biodiversity, water use, livestock, and fisheries [12]. In the following sections, we will discuss the impact of changing climatic patterns on crop yield and production, soil health, livestock, and fisheries life.

2.1. Impact on Crop Production

The world’s food demand is driven to its maximum by an ever-increasing population. The most sustainable strategy to achieve food security is increasing crop yield per land area unit. However, we cannot attain the potential productivity of many crops worldwide due to various adverse conditions and poor management practices. Variations in the prevailing environment are critical in achieving improved agricultural productivity in the current circumstances. Weather challenges such as increased temperature, carbon dioxide, and excessive precipitation impact crop yield the most. Climate projections from several authorities have also forecasted future changes, including their direct and indirect impacts on crops [13].

Climate change can significantly impact crop production, causing changes in the timing of planting and harvest, as well as altering the growing conditions of crops. The effects of climate change on crop production can include changes in temperature and precipitation patterns, increased frequency and severity of extreme weather events such as droughts, floods, and storms, increase in pests and disease, changes in soil moisture and soil temperature, and alterations in water availability. These changes can lead to a decrease in food security and economic losses for farmers. The climate also alters plant–microbe relationships by changing agricultural crop growth, development, yield, and quality [14]. In addition, it also impacts plant interaction with a pathogen, affecting their life cycle, host resistance development, disease severity, the introduction of new types, pathogenicity, and so on. The adverse effects of these weather elements on crops are enlisted in

Table 1. Effects of weather variables on crop growth and development [15,16,17].

Higher CO2 Fertilizer	Higher Temperature Levels	Precipitation Variability
Increases photosynthetic rate Increases biomass Increases water use efficiency Increases tolerance for low light levels Increases optimum temperature for photosynthesis	Inhibition of seed germination Reduction in plant growth and development Alteration in photosynthetic rate Alteration in phenology and dry matter partitioning Water loss Oxidative stress Yield and quality reduction (C3 plants are more susceptible to higher temperature stress than C4 plants)	Affects the production of traditional crops Increases crop disease incidence Soil fertility changes Variable soil water availability Water scarcity in productive areas due to reduced freshwater resources Reduced nutrient use efficiency Physical damage due to excess rainfall Economic and community loss due to droughts and floods

, which all decrease the yields of many crop species in one way or another. At present, productivity is increasing slower than population growth, which ultimately causes food insecurity. Climate change will substantially reduce the production of essential cereal crops (20–45%, 5–50%, and 20–30% in maize, wheat, and rice, respectively) worldwide by 2100 [15]. The substantial decrease in crop growth (12%, 23%, 13%, and 8%) and dramatic increase in the average prices (90%, 89%, 75%, and 83%) of maize, rice, wheat, and other crops, respectively, were also quantified due to climate change by 2030 [16]. Overall, Climate change has the potential to fundamentally alter agricultural systems, leading to decreased crop yields and reduced food security. Adaptation strategies and mitigation efforts are necessary to help reduce the negative impacts of climate change on crop production [17].

2.2. Impact on Soil

Healthy soils are a natural source of essential plant nutrients and play a critical role in achieving higher agricultural productivity. Soils are formed by the complex interaction of many factors (viz., climate, relief, parent material, and organisms) over time. However, the climate factor is the most significant element that influences soil formation, substantially impacting soil development and management regarding structure, stability, water retention, fertility status, and erosion [18]. Higher temperature and weather extremities (viz., extreme rainfall, drought condition, frost situation, storms, and sea level rise) are the main predicted outcomes of climate change, which pose serious threats to the soil in terms of erosion, compactness, soil healthiness, and productivity [19]. The expected consequences of climate change on various soil processes are enlisted in Figure 2 [18,19,20].

Increasing CO₂ levels, rising temperatures, and precipitation variations on soil can be significant and far-reaching. These changes can affect soil fertility, structure, and the ability of soil to support healthy plant growth, which, in turn, affect food security, biodiversity, and the planet’s overall health. The increased CO₂ leads to soil acidification, which can alter soil pH levels, reducing soil fertility and affecting plant growth [19]. This can have far-reaching consequences for food security, water availability, and biodiversity. Soil acidification can also impact the abundance and diversity of soil organisms, which play a critical role in maintaining soil health. As a result, mitigating the effects of increasing CO₂ levels on soil is crucial for ensuring sustainable land use practices and preserving the ecosystem [18]. Rising temperatures can accelerate decomposition and nutrient cycling rates, leading to changes in soil nutrient levels and structure. Soil temperature increases can also cause soil moisture levels to decline, leading to increased soil erosion and decreased soil health. Higher temperatures can also significantly impact the diversity and distribution of soil microorganisms, which play a critical role in maintaining soil health and fertility. Changes in precipitation patterns, such as more frequent heavy rain events or prolonged droughts, can result in soil erosion, increased runoff, and decreased water infiltration into the soil. This can lead to soil degradation and a decline in soil health, as well as reducing the soil’s ability to store water and retain nutrients. Changes in precipitation patterns can also lead to changes in the distribution and diversity of soil microorganisms, which can significantly impact soil health and fertility [18,19,20].

Moreover, climate change impacts the salinization process of the soil [21]. The soil salinization development occurs near the plant’s root zone, reducing water availability in semi-arid or arid watered agricultural areas and increasing the movement of available salts from shallow water tables [21,22]. This can increase the reusing of degraded waters as well as salt water intrusion. It has been proved that significant levels of rainfall (too little or too much) can meaningfully influence the soil salinity in the root zone. It has been demonstrated that the higher level of rainfall caused by climate change elevated the water table [23]. The results of studies showed that when the water table is less or equal to 2 m from the soil surface, the capillary rise phenomenon leads the salt’s upward movement from the water table to the soil surface. This water movement can lead to salt accumulation near or at the soil’s surface during the dry period when the salt leaching occurs at the root zone due to insufficient rainfall.

Similarly, drought can cause the same results in the salinity, water movements, and water level in the water table and soil surface [22]. During the drought period, the reduction in water availability causes a significant increase in the land which should be followed. Therefore, salt accumulation is observed in the soil surface when upward water movement occurs due to the capillary rise from the shallow water table. On the other hand, drought affects the accumulation of salt and minerals in the root zone during the well water over-drafting for agricultural reasons from a non-saline aquifer placed close to coastal zones or near a saline aquifer [21]. Furthermore, reusing degraded water (such as drainage or municipal waters) in agricultural lands experiencing drought could increase the level of salinity in the root zone [24]. Therefore, it is essential to understand and monitor the impact of increasing CO₂ levels, rising temperatures, and precipitation variations on soil and to implement measures to mitigate their negative effects and promote soil health.

3. Impact of Climate Change on Livestock and Fisheries

The livestock sector is the key component of agriculture, accounting for almost 40% of the overall agricultural GDP. By 2050, global demand for animal-origin products is anticipated to double, primarily due to rising living standards [25]. Extreme weather conditions are one of the essential hindrances to efficient livestock production. Increased human competition for limited natural resources, changing feed crop species and quality, disease outbreaks, and heat stress will significantly impact animal production and efficiency [26,27]. Winter warming will promote the incidence and spread of livestock diseases that can persist throughout the year and become more virulent with rising temperatures [28]. Heat stress is the critical factor that primarily affects the animals through its influence on milk and meat production, reproductive efficiency, and health. However, temperature, carbon dioxide, and precipitation fluctuations combinedly affect the forage quantity and quality [29,30,31,32]. The effects of climate change on livestock are illustrated in Figure 3 [28].

As mentioned in Figure 3, the rising levels of CO₂ in the atmosphere are causing increased temperatures and altered precipitation patterns, affecting livestock health and productivity. CO₂ can also increase the level of heat stress in livestock and reduce the quality of their feed, leading to decreased feed intake and reduced growth rates [33]. In addition, the increase in global temperature is leading to changes in the frequency and intensity of heat waves, which can significantly impact livestock health and productivity. Heat stress in livestock can cause decreased feed intake, reduced growth rates, increased disease susceptibility, and decreased fertility [33,34,35]. Changes in precipitation patterns, including more frequent droughts and heavy rainfall events, can affect the quality and availability of forage for livestock. Drought conditions can result in decreased forage production and reduced feed availability, leading to reduced growth and weight gain in livestock.

On the other hand, heavy rainfall can cause flooding and damage pastures, reducing their quality and availability as a feed source for livestock. Overall, the combined effects of increasing CO₂ levels, increasing temperature, and precipitation variation are having a significant impact on the health and productivity of livestock. As a result, farmers and ranchers must adapt their management practices to ensure their livestock operations’ well-being and continued viability [35,36].

Climate change effects on the ocean environment, particularly ocean warming, acidity, and sea-level rise, will substantially influence fish stocks and fishermen. Moreover, it is altering the distribution as well as output of both marine and freshwater fish species. Regarding climate change, studies suggest that marine fish and invertebrates are migrating their populations to higher elevations and deeper parts of the oceans. As some environments become less suitable for certain species, their relative abundance may alter [37]. Fish production is anticipated to drop by 6% in oceans across the globe by 2100 and by 11% in tropical zones. Moreover, it predicted an 85% reduction in marine and terrestrial production, particularly in analyzed coastal countries [38]. The specific influence of climate change on fisheries is illustrated in Figure 4 [39].

One of the specific consequences of climate change on fisheries is ocean warming. This can lead to changes in the distribution and abundance of fish species, as well as their migration patterns. Warmer waters can also affect the growth and reproduction of fish, leading to changes in the size and quality of catches. Another specific consequence of climate change is ocean acidification, which occurs due to increasing CO₂ levels in the atmosphere. This can significantly impact the biology and physiology of marine species, including fish, shellfish, and other species that are important for commercial and subsistence fishing [38]. Acidification can reduce the availability of calcium carbonate, which is needed to form shells and skeletons in many marine species [40]. Climate change is also causing changes in ocean circulation patterns, which can affect the distribution and abundance of fish and other marine species. These changes can result in the redistribution of fish stocks, impacting fishing communities that depend on specific species for their livelihoods. The increasing frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, such as hurricanes and typhoons, can also significantly impact fisheries. These events can cause damage to fishing gear, infrastructure, and ports, as well as disrupt fishing operations [41].

4. Building Climate Resilience from Precision and Digital Agriculture Strategies

Climate change has been an alarming danger to agricultural productivity and food security in recent years. Achieving climate resilience through reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and increasing the efficiency of available resources is one of the prime approaches that help to attain higher productivity under changing climatic conditions. Adaptation and mitigation strategies aid the agricultural system’s resistance to damage and speedy recovery. In this regard, precision and digital strategies involving different tools and management practices will pave the way for attaining higher yields with lesser inputs. Methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O) are the major anthropogenic greenhouse gases (GHGs) from agriculture, with global warming potential of 28–36 and 265–298 times that of CO₂ in a 100-year time horizon, respectively [42]. Improper irrigation and nutrient management practices are major contributors to CH₄ and N₂O. Judicious use of water and nutrients will help curtail these gases’ emissions to a certain extent. At this juncture, precision water and nutrient management play a pivotal role in reducing emissions and improving resource use efficiency [43].

4.1. Precision Nutrient Management

The site-specific nutrient management (SSNM) is necessary to optimize fertilizer use and crop productivity based on crop needs and supply capacity. Excess fertilizer application and imbalanced plant nutrition are the key contributors to anthropogenic GHG emissions in the form of N₂O. Increasing nitrogen usage efficiency (NUE) is one of the great opportunities in recent years for achieving climate resilience. Currently, the NUE was varied between 30–50% based on the crop species, prevailing climate, soil conditions, and other crop management practices [44]. In this context, precision nutrient management through selecting the right source, amount, place, and application method will help achieve higher efficiency, particularly nitrogen fertilizers, thereby mitigating greenhouse gas emissions through reduced N₂O emissions. In addition, precision techniques also help to achieve higher nutrient use efficiency through reduced input usage [45,46]. Different technologies and decision management tools available for improving the NUE through site-specific nutrient management are enlisted and presented in

Table 2. Important nutrient decision tools and their utility [45].

Decision Tools	Utility
Manage-N	Site-specific nitrogen management tool
Amaize-N	Yield forecasting and nitrogen management tool for maize
NuDSS	SSNM tool for rice
Nutrient Expert	SSNM tool for rice, maize, and wheat
QUEFTS	SSNM tool for rice and wheat
Adapt-N	Nitrogen manager in maize
Expert-N	Site-specific nitrogen management tool for wheat and annual crops
Rice crop manager	SSNM tool for rice

and Figure 5 [45,46].

As mentioned, SSNM is a combination of nutrient management approaches, and the goal of using this system is to secure the crop’s nutrient needs to fit a certain growing environment or field [47]. Notwithstanding all the improvements in the productivity of farm trails by SSNM, the acceptance rate of SSNM is not still remarkable. In addition, many extension agents believe that the SSNM is complex and hard to implement; thus, applying SSNM is required to understand the concept and gain experience related to the field and crop [47,48]. Nowadays, various types of nutrient decision support means have been implemented to improve the crop’s productivity. Interestingly, the mentioned tools have been tailored based on the guidelines and principles of SSNMs.

As mentioned in Figure 5, many tools are available for improving nutrient use efficiency in agriculture, including chlorophyll meters, leaf color charts, green seekers, nutrient experts, remote sensing, and soil mapping. By using these tools, farmers can make more informed decisions about fertilizer applications, reducing input costs, improving yields, and reducing the environmental impact of their operations [49].

For instance, Nutrient Expert (NE) is one of the mentioned computer-based decision means that can help plant growth advisors and growers design the best strategies to manage different fertilizers, including N, P, and K [50] for any cereal crops and different geographic regions. The required amount of fertilizers is calculated based on the algorithm, which was determined from a chain of on-farm trial statistics using the SSNM principle and guidelines. Interestingly, the relationship between nutrients and balance uptake at the harvest grain yield determines the fertilizer (N, P, and K) requirements of the crops in SSNM [51]. Similarly, Leaf Color Chart (LCC) is another precision tool that has been applied in agriculture. This beneficial tool has extensively helped calculate the rate and timing of nutrient demand, and several studies have demonstrated the improvement in yield enhancement and nutrient usage efficiency by applying LCC kits. This kit contains a collection of colors that could be compared to a leaf in the same lighting conditions [52]. This non-destructive method is widely applied to evaluate smart and efficient nitrogen management in various circumstances, including climate, soil, management, and variety in different crops [53]. Variable rate technology (VRT) is a vital site-specific precision agriculture (PA) means. Applying the VRT technology variable doses of fertilizer inputs within an agriculture field based on the spatial variability of soil and crop results in less environmental harm and more rational usage of inputs. Although this type of management has the potential to be applied for any crop or field input, VRT has been commonly used for fertilization operations and grain crops [54]. A chlorophyll meter is a handheld device that measures the chlorophyll content of crops, providing a direct measure of plant health and nutrient status. Farmers can quickly and easily determine the nutrient needs of their crops by using a chlorophyll meter and adjusting fertilizer applications accordingly, improving nutrient use efficiency, and reducing waste [55]. Green Seeker is a tool that uses near-infrared (NIR) technology to measure the chlorophyll content of crops. This information can be used to make precise, site-specific management decisions about fertilizer applications, improving nutrient use efficiency and reducing waste [49]. Remote sensing is a tool that uses satellite and aerial imagery to gather data on crop conditions, including nutrient status and soil health. This information can be used to make precise, site-specific management decisions about fertilizer applications, improving nutrient use efficiency and reducing waste [55]. Soil mapping is a tool that involves creating a detailed map of the soil characteristics and nutrient status in a given field. This information can be used to make precise, site-specific management decisions about fertilizer applications, improving nutrient use efficiency and reducing waste [49]. The GHGs reduction potential of different management tools in different crops are presented in

Table 3. Different management tools and their greenhouse gas reduction potential.

Management tool	Crop	Output	Ref.
Nutrient expert	Rice, Wheat	5–35% reduced nitrogen inputs 2–20% reduced global warming potential 4–8% increase in yield	[56]
Leaf color chart	Rice	16% reduction in nitrous oxide emissions 11% reduction in methane emission Reduced the global warming potential by 1297 kg CO2 ha−1	[57]
Variable rate technology	Corn	6–46% reduction in nitrogen fertilizer requirement Reduced nitrous oxide emission	[58]
Leaf color chart	Rice	Reduced N-losses 10–15% higher N-use efficiency	[59]
LCC, SPAD, Green Seeker canopy reflectance sensor	Wheat	Reduced total GHG emissions by 24% Reduced N2O emissions by 23%	[60]

.

Precision and digital agricultural solutions can help develop climate resilience by enhancing nutrient management in farming practices. One of the primary benefits of precision nutrient management is optimizing fertilizer application, minimizing waste, and increasing efficiency. Farmers can customize their nutrient management strategies to the unique demands of their crops and soil by using data from soil and plant sensors, resulting in higher yields and lower input costs [61]. Another advantage of precision nutrient management is its ability to reduce agricultural and environmental impacts. Precision agriculture can help to avoid nutrient runoff and pollution by lowering fertilizer use and optimizing the application, which can have severe consequences for water quality and ecosystem health [62]. However, there are also some drawbacks to precision nutrient management; the use of precision agriculture technologies can be expensive and require significant investment in equipment, software, and data management.

Furthermore, using these technologies may include a learning curve, which may necessitate additional training for farmers and other agricultural professionals [63]. Overall, the effectiveness of precision nutrient management in increasing climate resilience will be determined by a variety of factors, including farming practices, soil, and climate conditions, and the availability of technology and training. Ongoing monitoring and analysis, as well as collaboration among farmers, researchers, and industry professionals, will be required to assess the effectiveness of these strategies [64]. To maximize the benefits of precision nutrient management for climate resilience, future recommendations may include increasing access to technology and training for farmers, developing standardized protocols and best practices for data collection and analysis and promoting policies and incentives to support sustainable nutrient management practices. Additionally, ongoing research and development of precision agriculture technologies will be essential to ensure these strategies remain effective and relevant in the face of evolving environmental challenges [65].

4.2. Precision Water Management

Building climate resilience through precision and digital agriculture strategies, such as precision water management, is becoming increasingly important as the effects of climate change continue to impact the world. Precision water management can help farmers adapt to changing weather patterns and extreme weather events, such as droughts and floods, by optimizing irrigation practices and reducing water waste. It uses advanced technologies, such as sensors, data analytics, and control systems, to monitor soil moisture levels, crop water requirements, and weather conditions in real time. By collecting and analyzing this data, precision water management helps farmers make informed decisions about when and how much water to apply to crops, reducing waste and improving crop yields [66]. In addition, precision water management can help farmers mitigate the impact of water stress on crops, making them more resilient to the effects of drought and other extreme weather events. Furthermore, it helps conserve water resources, preserving them for future generations and reducing the impact of agriculture on the environment. By reducing water waste and optimizing irrigation practices, precision water management can help protect aquifers, rivers, and other water sources, ensuring that these resources are available even in drought. Along with precision nutrient and water management practices, the adoption of climate-resilient varieties, slow-releasing fertilizers, laser land leveling, rainwater harvesting, minimum tillage practices, and promotion of crop diversification, carbon sequestration, and sustainable land use and management will play a pivot role in mitigating greenhouse gases emission, as well as attaining climate resilience under the present scenario of climate change [67].

Precise application of irrigation water helps attain higher crop yield and reduced greenhouse gas emissions. Globally, rice cultivation is the major contributor to CH₄ and N₂O emissions, contributing 1.5% to the total anthropogenic GHG emissions [67]. Most rice cultivation is under puddled transplanted rice in the world with lower water use efficiency. In this regard, adopting different irrigation management practices and methods of cultivation in a rice crop will help achieve higher water use efficiency and reduce methane emissions. The irrigation management practices such as drip irrigation, sprinkler irrigation, and alternate wetting and drying in place of flooding will reduce greenhouse gas emissions by maintaining rice productivity. The mitigation percentage of methane under different irrigation methods is presented in

Table 4. Mitigation percentage of methane under different irrigation methods.

Technology	Methane Mitigation (%)	Reference
Intermittent drying	25–30	[68]
Direct seeded rice	30–40	[68]
System of rice intensification	20–25	[68]
Drip irrigation	78	[69]
Alternate wetting and drying	30–51	[70]
	36–50	[71]
	50–65	[72]

. Understanding the mitigation percentage of CH₄ under different irrigation methods is essential to reducing the carbon footprint of rice cultivation and ensuring a sustainable future for rice cultivation. In this article, we will explore the mitigation percentage of CH₄ under five different irrigation methods, including intermittent drying, direct seeded rice, system of rice intensification, drip irrigation, and alternate wetting and drying [68]. Each method has a different level of mitigation, with intermittent drying reducing CH₄ emissions by 20–30%, direct seeded rice by 30–40%, system of rice intensification by 20–25%, drip irrigation by 80%, and alternate wetting and drying by 30–60%. The reduction in CH₄ emissions is due to factors such as reduced water usage, improved water management, the precision of water application, and aerobic degradation of organic matter. However, the mitigation percentages of CH₄ under different irrigation methods vary depending on factors such as soil type, weather conditions, and management practices [68,69,70,71,72,73].

Precision water management as a part of precision and digital agriculture strategies can have several advantages. One of the significant benefits is that it helps to minimize water use by providing accurate information regarding soil moisture content and crop water requirements, which can lead to less irrigation water use [74]. Furthermore, it can help prevent overwatering, resulting in waterlogging, soil erosion, and nutrient leaching, eventually enhancing crop yields and minimizing water waste. Another benefit of precision water management is that the technology can assist farmers in mitigating the effects of climate change, such as droughts and floods [75]. By providing accurate information on soil moisture levels and crop water requirements, precision water management can help farmers make informed decisions on water use during droughts and prevent waterlogging during floods [76]. However, there are also some drawbacks to precision water management. One of the main limitations is that it needs significant investment in technology and infrastructure, which can be extremely expensive for small-scale farmers with limited resources. Furthermore, the accuracy of precision water management can be influenced by factors such as soil variability and sensor calibration, resulting in inaccurate data and potentially incorrect management decisions [77]. In terms of future recommendations, additional research is needed to assess precision water management’s effectiveness and economic viability in various agricultural systems and regions. Additionally, there is a need to develop more user-friendly and affordable technology that can provide accurate data and allow for effective water management decisions. Furthermore, promoting the adoption of precision water management practices through education and training programs can help ensure that farmers can take full advantage of the benefits of this technology [74,75,76,77].

4.3. Precision Land Use Management

Land use sustainability is another way to combat climate change. Sustainable land use practices involve using natural resources to satisfy current demands without jeopardizing the ability of future generations to fulfill their own needs. Such practices aim to reduce the negative environmental implications of land usage while encouraging economic and social growth [78]. Sustainable land use practices can help reduce greenhouse gas emissions, enhance carbon sequestration, and promote ecosystem resilience to the impacts of climate change. This can contribute to various benefits, including increased biodiversity, improved soil health, reduced soil erosion, increased soil fertility, and improved food security, all while reducing carbon. They can also help improve communities’ resilience to climate change’s effects, such as droughts, floods, and extreme weather events [79]. There are several examples of sustainable land use practices that can help combat climate change. Regenerative agriculture, for instance, involves practices such as agroforestry, cover cropping, and rotational grazing, which help sequester carbon in the soil, reduce greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture, and improve soil health [78,80]. On the other hand, sustainable forest management involves managing forests’ sustainably through practices such as selective logging, reducing deforestation and degradation, and promoting forest regeneration, which helps mitigate climate change. Planning land use in a sustainable way that considers the carbon sequestration potential of different land types can help reduce greenhouse gas emissions and promote carbon storage. Lastly, limiting urban sprawl and promoting denser, more walkable communities can reduce emissions from transportation, energy use, and other sources [80].

Precision and digital agriculture strategies have great potential to help build climate resilience by enabling land managers to make more informed decisions about land use suitability. Land use suitability refers to the ability of a particular land use to meet the needs of a particular region, taking into account factors such as soil type, water availability, and climate conditions. By using precision and digital agriculture strategies, land managers can better assess land use suitability and make more informed decisions about which land uses are most appropriate for a particular area [81]. One example of precision and digital agriculture strategies in action is the use of precision irrigation systems, which can help reduce water usage and increase the efficiency of crop production. These systems use sensors and other technologies to monitor soil moisture levels and adjust water application accordingly. By using these systems, land managers can reduce water usage, which can help increase water availability in regions that are prone to drought and other water shortages [78,82].

Another example is using digital tools such as satellite imagery and machine learning algorithms to analyze soil health and crop growth patterns. By using these tools, land managers can identify areas that are prone to soil erosion, nutrient depletion, and other issues that can impact crop productivity and contribute to climate change. They can then use this information to develop more targeted land management strategies that address these issues and help build climate resilience [83].

The land use suitability approach has several advantages, including increased crop productivity, improved soil quality, reduced water consumption, and enhanced climate resilience. By identifying the optimal crop varieties, nutrient management practices, and irrigation methods for each specific area, farmers can maximize their yields while minimizing their environmental impact [84]. One of the drawbacks of this approach is that it requires significant upfront investment in technology and data collection. Farmers must have access to high-quality soil maps, weather data, and crop models to make informed decisions about land use suitability [85]. Additionally, this approach may not be feasible in areas with limited technological access or regions with a highly variable climate. In terms of evaluation, measuring the success of land use suitability practices can be challenging. Farmers may need to collect data on soil quality, crop yields, and water usage to determine the effectiveness of their precision agriculture strategies. Furthermore, this approach may require ongoing adjustments and monitoring to ensure that the selected land use practices remain effective over time [78]. Future recommendations for land use suitability practices include expanding access to technology and data collection methods, developing user-friendly decision support tools, and promoting collaborative research efforts between farmers, scientists, and policymakers. Additionally, policymakers can support the adoption of precision agriculture strategies by offering financial incentives for sustainable land use practices and investing in infrastructure to support data collection and analysis [82].

5. Digital Agriculture Adoption

Digital innovation in agriculture represents a great opportunity to eradicate poverty and hunger and mitigate the effects of climate change [86]. Through digitalization, all parts of the agri-food production chain will be modified since connectivity and the processing of large amounts of information instantly allow for more efficient work, greater economic return, greater environmental benefits, and better working conditions in the field. However, implementing these changes will require governments to increasingly strengthen rural infrastructure and promote the development of rural communities and small rural businesses so that they can adopt and implement innovative solutions [86]. The perspectives of digital agriculture adoption were assessed in research conducted in the United States, which revealed that the perceptions of the derived benefits are heterogeneous and differentiated according to the agricultural culture [87]. In order to better understand farmers’ adoption decisions or lack thereof, it is important to understand their perception of the benefits that technology can provide for them.

Previous studies on digital agriculture [88] emphasize that digital agriculture supports better decision-making based on consistent analyses of agricultural systems, supporting the farmer in the form of digital solutions associated with robotics and artificial intelligence. However, they stress that it is necessary to coordinate more solid user training, especially for young farmers eager to learn and apply modern agricultural technologies and to grant a generational renewal yet to come. They consider the right time for society to advance in modern and sustainable agriculture, becoming capable of presenting all the power of agricultural management based on data to face the challenges posed to food production in the 21st century.

A study conducted in Sao Paulo [89] investigated the adoption of digital agriculture technologies in sugarcane production through a questionnaire sent to all companies that operate in the sugar and alcohol sector in the region. The authors concluded that companies that adopted and used these technologies have proven to reap benefits, such as management improvement, higher productivity, lower costs, minimization of environmental impacts, and improved sugarcane quality. Furthermore, another study [90] investigated the use and adoption by producers and service providers of digital agriculture technologies in different Brazilian agricultural regions and found that the growth of technology adoption was linked to economic gains in agriculture. Financial aspects combined with the difficulty in using software and equipment provided by the lack of technical training by field teams were highlighted as the main factors limiting the expansion in using these technologies in the field [91]. This research indicates that Brazilian farmers use at least one digital technology in their production system, such as mobile apps, digital platforms, software, global satellite positioning systems, remote sensing, and field sensors. Consequently, the percentage decreases as the application’s technological complexity level increases [91].

The use of digital agriculture has the potential to increase the sustainable management of natural resources, making agricultural areas more productive and reducing the negative environmental impact [90]. However, there are challenges to amplify its use, including the lack of access to technology and digital infrastructure in certain regions, limited knowledge and understanding of digital agriculture among farmers and land managers, and high costs associated with implementing and maintaining digital agriculture systems. Other challenges include limited data quality and availability for developing accurate models and algorithms, difficulty in integrating digital agriculture technologies with existing farm management systems and practices, concerns about data privacy and security, and uncertainty regarding the effectiveness of digital agriculture in mitigating climate change and improving sustainability [88,90,91].

Land managers will face several challenges in the future regarding the future climate scenario with technological solutions. Different technologies can be adopted to implement digital agriculture to mitigate climate change, due to which the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, such as droughts, floods, and heatwaves, which can lead to crop failure and soil erosion have increased [86]. Temperature and precipitation patterns will change, impacting crop yields and shifting vegetation zones, affecting ecosystem functions. Additionally, land managers must face the spread of invasive species, pests, and diseases, which can negatively impact crop and livestock production, and the overall health of ecosystems. Limited knowledge and understanding of digital agriculture among farmers and land managers can create a gap between the technology and land managers. Furthermore, other challenges include limited data quality and availability for developing accurate models and algorithms and difficulty integrating digital agriculture technologies with existing farm management systems and practices [92].

In order to address these challenges, land managers are exploring a range of technological solutions. Precision agriculture technologies, such as soil sensors, drones, and satellite imagery, must be used to monitor soil and crop conditions and optimize fertilizer and water usage, create a different energy source, such as biogas and biofuels, to reduce reliance on fossil fuels and provide alternative energy sources, and finally, utilize climate-smart agriculture practices, such as agroforestry, which integrate trees and crops to enhance ecosystem services and reduce greenhouse gas emissions [90].

6. Framework for Climate-Smart Agriculture

As a climate-sensitive sector, agriculture is highly affected by climate change and its variability, albeit the consequences differ depending on areas, crops, and the level of adaptability and resilience in the agricultural production system. Due to poverty, income volatility, and a lack of adaptation capability, developing and low-latitude countries are highly susceptible to climate change. Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is extensively pushed as a way to achieve food security in light of climate change challenges. CSA is a holistic approach that aims at attaining sustainable agricultural production with three important objectives viz. adopting and building resilience to long- and short-term risks/stresses, reducing the greenhouse gas emission from the different inputs and outputs in the production process, and achieving food and nutritional security through higher productivity with efficient utilization of available resources [93]. CSA integrates these three objectives in terms of economic, social, and environmental dimensions for jointly addressing sustainable food production and climate hazards. The development of climate-smart practices at each component of crop production is necessary for making crops more climate resilient. The CSA includes crop management, livestock management, soil and water conservation, carbon and energy management, etc. The CSA interventions are illustrated in Figure 6. However, CSA practices are specific for different countries and regions as the prevailing climatic conditions will vary globally. In addition to the management methods above, timely dissemination of weather-based agro-advisory services and increased knowledge of CSA practices to farmers can help them achieve higher yields in the context of climate change. The importance of essential CSA practices and their impact on reducing GHG emissions are discussed in detail [94].

The technologies and methods used in digital agriculture, such as IoT sensors, robots, and AI-based data processing software can contribute significantly to climate-smart agriculture. Examples include the trend in the development and use of robotic mechanical weeding, or machines that are equipped with variable rate technology and apply fertilizers and pesticides only where they are needed, reducing the amount of chemicals that are applied to the soil. This can reduce greenhouse gas emissions and the risk of soil and water contamination. Similarly, precision irrigation systems can help reduce water waste and optimize crop growth. By using digital sensors to measure soil moisture levels and weather patterns, farmers can adjust irrigation schedules to ensure that crops receive the optimal amount of water. In closed-field agriculture such as greenhouses and dairy farming, IoT sensors have enabled farmers to predict outside weather fluctuations and use optimal control methods to reduce the energy consumption for cooling and heating. Mathematical crop models have also enabled growers to simulate how different crops will perform under different climate scenarios in order to identify which crops are best suited to their local conditions and which will perform best under future climate conditions. By choosing suitable crops, the need for inputs such as energy, water, and fertilizer is reduced, increasing the resilience to climate change. On the other hand, digital platforms can facilitate collaboration among farmers, researchers, and policymakers to develop new solutions to climate change, such as new crop varieties that are more resilient to extreme weather events.

6.1. Crop Management

Climate-smart crop management is a critical component of CSA. It involves using sustainable and innovative agricultural practices, technologies, and policies to manage and conserve resources and minimize the impact of agriculture on the environment. The goal of climate-smart crop management is to improve the resilience of crops to changing climate conditions and enhance the productivity of the agricultural system. One of the key features of climate-smart crop management is the use of precision agriculture technologies. Precision agriculture uses information and communication technologies (ICTs) to monitor and manage crops more effectively. Precision irrigation systems, for example, use sensors to collect data on soil moisture, weather conditions, and crop growth and then adjust water usage automatically to ensure the right amount of water is delivered to the right place at the right time. This reduces water waste and improves irrigation efficiency, helping farmers conserve water resources and adapt to changing climate conditions [95]. Another important aspect of climate-smart crop management is using drought-tolerant crop varieties and agronomic practices that promote water-use efficiency. For example, conservation tillage and mulching can help to reduce water evaporation from the soil, conserve moisture, and increase water-use efficiency. In addition, farmers can adopt crop rotation systems that maximize the use of water resources and minimize the impact of water stress on crops. This can help reduce water stress’s impact on crops, making them more resilient to the effects of drought and other extreme weather events [96]. In addition to these agronomic practices, climate-smart crop management also involves developing and implementing supportive policies and programs. For example, governments can financially support farmers to invest in precision agriculture technologies and practices and to adopt sustainable land use practices. In addition, they can also invest in research and development to advance the implementation of these technologies and practices and to support farmers in adopting them.

Practices such as cereal–legume intercropping systems, crop rotation, drought and heat-tolerant varieties, short-duration varieties, improved storage and processing techniques, and crop diversification will help lower the GHG emission from the field as well as withstand weather abnormalities. For example, in place of rice–rice cropping systems, adopting rice–wheat systems will help reduce GHG emissions, particularly CH₄, as rice is a significant contributor to CH₄ emissions due to continuous flooding [97]. A study in China reported reduced N₂O emissions under maize + soybean intercropping systems compared to their sole crops [98,99]. Similarly, the maize + wheat intercropping system accounted for lower carbon emissions with reduced tillage and stubble mulching [100]. Thus, adopting proper crop management practices will play an important role in reducing GHG emissions and attaining higher yields.

6.2. Livestock Management

Climate-smart livestock management is a critical aspect of agriculture that seeks to help farmers adapt to the impacts of climate change on livestock production. Climate change is causing a range of effects on livestock production, including changes in temperature and rainfall patterns, as well as increased frequency and severity of extreme weather events. These impacts are affecting livestock’s health, productivity, and welfare and creating new challenges for farmers in managing their animals. To address these challenges, climate-smart livestock management seeks to help farmers adopt sustainable and innovative practices and technologies to manage their livestock, conserve resources, and minimize the impact of livestock production on the environment. For example, farmers can use improved livestock genetics to increase the resilience of their animals to the effects of climate change, such as heat stress and disease. In addition, using agroforestry systems can help create more resilient landscapes while reducing the impact of livestock production on the environment [101]. Another important aspect of climate-smart livestock management is the integration of climate information into decision-making processes. Farmers can use climate forecasts and weather data to make informed decisions about the management of their livestock, such as when to feed, water, and move their animals. In addition, remote sensing technologies can help monitor and manage livestock more effectively, reducing the impact of extreme weather events and disease outbreaks on animal health and productivity. In addition to these practical measures, governments and the private sector must work together to support the development and implementation of climate-smart livestock management practices. This includes providing financial support to farmers, investing in sustainable livestock management practices, and adopting sustainable land use practices. In addition, they must invest in research and development to advance the implementation of these practices and to support farmers in adopting them [101].

Adoption of climate-smart improved feeding methods, rotational grazing, forage crop inclusion, grassland regeneration and conservation, manure management, enhanced livestock health, and improved animal husbandry practices are needed as livestock release the CH₄ through their enteric fermentation process. The inclusion of a protein-rich diet will reduce the CH₄ emission from animals [102]. Breeding for heat- and disease-resistant cattle will increase the efficiency and reduce the mortality of the animals.

6.3. Soil, Water and Nutrient Management

Climate-smart soil, water, and nutrient management practices play a crucial role in mitigating the impacts of climate change on agriculture and ensuring food security in the face of a changing climate. These practices aim to improve soil health, conserve water resources, and enhance nutrient efficiency to help crops adapt to changing climatic conditions. They help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture and increase the resilience of farming systems to the impacts of climate change [103]. Climate-smart agriculture practices include soil conservation, water harvesting, crop rotation, and using cover crops to reduce soil erosion and improve soil fertility. Farmers can reduce their dependence on fertilizers and pesticides by improving soil health, which contributes to greenhouse gas emissions [104].

Additionally, efficient water management practices, such as rainwater harvesting and micro-irrigation, can reduce water use and help conserve this vital resource. Incorporating nutrient management practices, such as using organic fertilizers and intercropping, can also improve soil fertility and enhance crop yields. This not only helps to reduce the impact of climate change on agriculture but also increases food security and income for farmers. The implementation of climate-smart agriculture practices requires an integrated approach, including government policies and investment in research and extension services. This will help to build the capacity of farmers to adapt to changing climatic conditions and ensure sustainable agriculture practices for future generations [103].

Increasing water and nutrient use efficiency is critical for achieving higher productivity through climate resilience. Thus, adopting conservation agriculture, contour cultivation, organic amendments, water harvesting, water-saving technologies, mulching, precision water, and nutrient management practices will help achieve climate resilience. Increased soil aeration, carbon content, and reduced CH₄ emission were reported with biochar application than crop residue treatment. The CSA practices comprising of LCC, paddy soil test kit, organic amendments, and intermittent irrigation practices substantially reduced the GHG emission by 7–23% and increased the economic returns by 42–129% [105]. The reduction of GHG emission and increased use efficiency of resources with different precision farming systems was discussed in the earlier chapter.

6.4. Carbon and Energy Management

Climate-smart carbon and energy management involves reducing greenhouse gas emissions, improving energy efficiency, and increasing the use of renewable energy sources. This approach aims to address climate change’s causes and impacts and provide a path to a low-carbon and sustainable future. One of the key strategies for reducing carbon emissions is to increase energy efficiency. This can be achieved by using more energy-efficient technologies, such as LED lighting and energy-efficient buildings, and by promoting the adoption of low-carbon energy sources, such as wind and solar power [104]. Developing renewable energy sources can also help reduce greenhouse gas emissions, as they emit fewer pollutants and do not contribute to climate change. Another important aspect of climate-smart carbon and energy management is reducing emissions from transportation. This can be achieved by promoting low-carbon transportation options, such as electric vehicles and public transportation, and by improving fuel efficiency by using more fuel-efficient vehicles and alternative fuels [106]. In addition to reducing emissions, climate-smart carbon and energy management also involve the implementation of carbon capture, utilization, and storage technologies. This involves capturing carbon dioxide emissions from power plants and industrial processes and storing them safely and securely. Finally, it is important to develop a policy framework that supports the implementation of climate-smart carbon and energy management practices. This includes the development of regulations and incentives to encourage the adoption of low-carbon technologies and the reduction of emissions from transportation and industry [107].

Adopting carbon and energy-smart practices will help attain sustainable food production. Carbon sequestration can be achieved by adopting the agroforestry concept of growing trees and plants on the bunds, fruit orchards, multipurpose trees, wood trees, and nitrogen-fixing trees in the agricultural systems. Moreover, adopting minimum tillage practices and integrated pest management will reduce carbon emissions by reducing soil disturbance and chemicals used [108]. Concerning energy management, using energy smart practices such as biofuels, solar pumps and engines, electronic vehicles, biogas, improved stoves and energy production plants, and residue management will reduce GHG emissions and pave the way for CSA. Developing countries must undergo considerable transformations to address climate-related food security concerns. Existing effective climate-resilient agricultural practices need to be included in agricultural production systems to achieve climate resilience in the future. Effective climate change solutions must take an ecosystem approach, act at the landscape level, and ensure intersectional and cross-sectoral coordination and cooperation [107,108].

7. Conclusions

This paper provided an overview of climate change, food security, and the effect of digital agriculture on mitigating climate change. This study concludes that due to global warming, altered precipitation patterns, and an increase in the frequency of extreme events, climate change has negatively impacted food security by reducing agricultural yields, slowing animal growth rates, and decreasing livestock productivity in developing countries. It is threatening the very foundations of agriculture. However, new scientific innovations are now available that can be deployed to mitigate the effects of climate change and reduce food production’s impact on the environment. Based on the findings of this study, the most significant reduction potentials for GHG emissions are realized through technological and food consumption-based measures. The same combined approach is most effective for addressing future food security. Many of the suggested solutions for delivering food security will also co-deliver on reducing GHG emissions in agriculture. Measures that improve the efficiency of agriculture and minimize environmental pollution will benefit food security and GHG emission reduction. In this work, we provided evidence that the enhanced use of digital technologies improves efficiency across the agri-food sector, from farming systems to market access, can reduce the impact of agri-food systems on the environment. Thus, digital agriculture technologies could provide a better solution for sustainable crop yield while improving the quality to meet the population’s rising demand without compromising the environment. Hence, the future challenge is to create sustainable agricultural food systems, minimize environmental pollution, increase yields, provide fair and equitable food distribution, and reduce malnutrition leading to food security for all. With our willingness for change, combined with modern technological advancements, it would be possible to halt and reverse climate change and restore the planet’s health.

The research on the role of digital agriculture in mitigating climate change and ensuring food security reveals some limitations that should be considered. One of the key drawbacks is the lack of empirical information on the effectiveness of digital agriculture technology in decreasing greenhouse gas emissions and ensuring food security, particularly in underdeveloped nations. Additionally, access to essential technology and infrastructure is not distributed equitably, with many small-scale farmers in underdeveloped countries unable to benefit from the advantages of digital agriculture. Another limitation is the high cost of implementing digital agriculture technologies, which may restrict their adoption by small-scale farmers with limited resources. Moreover, digital agriculture technologies depend on a stable energy supply to function, which can be challenging in rural areas where the electricity supply is unreliable. In addition, the production and disposal of digital agriculture technology can have a negative environmental impact, including releasing greenhouse gases and generating electronic waste. There are also social and ethical implications of digital agriculture, such as the potential for increased inequality, loss of jobs, and concerns around data privacy and ownership. These limitations suggest that while digital agriculture has the potential to contribute to climate change mitigation and food security, it should not be considered a panacea. Careful consideration of its limitations and potential negative impacts is necessary to ensure that it is implemented in a sustainable and equitable way.

Future studies aiming to assess the potential of digital agriculture in mitigating climate change and ensuring food security could focus on addressing the limitations of the existing research. To achieve this goal, more empirical studies are needed to evaluate the effectiveness of digital agriculture technologies in reducing greenhouse gas emissions and enhancing food security, especially in developing countries. Additionally, further research is required to comprehend the barriers to accessing and adopting these technologies among small-scale farmers and the strategies for overcoming these obstacles. Moreover, studies could explore the economic viability of digital agriculture technologies, including the cost-effectiveness of different technologies and business models. Research could also investigate the energy requirements of digital agriculture technologies and ways to power them sustainably with minimal greenhouse gas emissions. Future studies should also aim to understand digital agriculture’s potential social and ethical implications and how to ensure equitable and sustainable implementation. Finally, studies could investigate the potential benefits of integrating digital agriculture technologies with other sustainable agriculture practices, such as agroforestry and conservation agriculture.