Utilization of Agro-Industrial By-Products for Sustainable Poultry Production
Abstract
:1. Agro-Industrial By-Products and Sustainability
2. Agro-Industrial By-Products in Poultry Nutrition
2.1. Fruit Juice Industry Leftovers
2.2. Nonconventional Oilseed Industrial By-Products
2.3. Dried Distillers’ Grain with Solubles
2.4. Vinification By-Products
2.5. Olive Oil Industry By-Products
2.6. Pomegranate By-Products
2.7. Tomato Processing By-Products
2.8. Other Agro-Industrial By-Products
3. Potential Limitations of Utilizing Agro-Industrial By-Products in Poultry Nutrition
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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By-Product Origin | Agro-Industrial By-Product | Key Ingredients | References |
---|---|---|---|
Apple | Apple pomace | Pectin, catechins, hydroxycinnamates, phloretin glycosides, quercetin glycosides, procyanidins | [50,51] |
Citrus fruits | Citrus pomace | Essential oil (mainly monoterpenes and triterpenoids), phenols (coumaric, caffeic, and ferulic acids), and flavonoids, mainly flavanones glycosides (hesperidin, naringin, and narirestin), flavones (hesperetin, naringenin), flavones aglycon (luteolin), and polymethoxylated flavones (tangeretin) | [16,52] |
Citrus seeds | Flavonoids | [53] | |
Orange peels | Vitamin C (ascorbic acid), phenolic compounds, pectin, coumarin, volatile oils, flavonoids, and flavones (hesperidin, naringenin), nobiletin D-limonene and pigments (carotenoids) | [37] | |
Lemon peels | Hesperidin and eriocitrin | [54] | |
Sunflower | Defatted cake | Peptides | [51] |
Dried distillers’ grain with solubles | Corn dried distillers’ grain with solubles | Betaine and phenolic compounds | [55] |
Grape and winery by-products | Grape pomace | Polyphenols (catechin, epicatechin, procyanidin B1, quercetin and kaempferol) | [56] |
Red grape pomace | Anthocyanins, flavonols | [57] | |
Olive | Olive pomace | Hydroxytyrosol, tyrosol, caffeic protocatechuic, vanillic, p-coumaric and syringic acids, vanillin, oleuropein, apigenin | [51,58] |
Olive mill wastewater | Hydroxytyrosol, gallic acid, oleuropein, ligstroside isomers and derivatives, squalene, tocopherols, triterpenes, soluble sugars, polyphenols | [51] | |
Olive flesh, stone, and seeds | Polyphenols, tocopherol | [51] | |
Olive leaves | Polyphenols | [51] | |
Pomegranate | Pomegranate husks | Poly- and monomeric phenols | [51] |
Tomato | Tomato skin and seeds | Lycopene, β-carotene, sterols, tocopherols, terpenes, glycoalkaloids | [51,59] |
Brewing industry | Brewer’s spent grains | Xylitol, cellulose, hemicelluloses, lignin, xylose, glucose, arabinose, protein, ferulic and p-coumaric acids | [51] |
Agro-Industrial By-Product | Poultry Species | Examined Inclusion Levels | Key Findings as Reported by Authors | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Apple pomace (AP) | Broiler | 0, 4, 8, 12, 16, or 20% and multi-enzyme | Aghili et al. indicated compromised growth performance and reduced antibody titer production, intestinal morphology, total antioxidant capacity, and blood parameters with increasing dietary levels of apple pomace. | [26] |
0, 3, 6% | Colombino et al. observed an effect on growth performance, gut morphometry, and histopathology, elevated ileum and ceca weight and ileum digesta viscosity and activities of α-glucosidase, α-galactosidase, β-galactosidase, β-glucuronidase, and xylase were influenced. | [28] | ||
Aging breeder roosters | 0, 10, 20, 25% | Akhlaghi et al. demonstrated an improvement in sperm fertility and motility, hatchability rate, seminal total antioxidant capacity and sperm characteristics, and increased values of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) and integrity of the sperm plasma membrane. | [31] | |
Goose | 0, 7%, 10%, and 0.05% multi-enzyme supplement | Fiialovych and Kyryliv observed an enhancement in egg laying, hatchability, and vitality of goslings with 7% AP in the diet. Blood biochemical parameters, egg laying rate, and traits were improved with AP up to 10% supplemented with 0.05% multi-enzyme supplement in the diet, without any further adverse effect in laying hens. | [32] | |
Laying hen | 0, 5, 10, 15% AP and 0 or 0.05% multi-enzyme | Ghaemi et al. indicated that AP levels up to 10% combined with 0.05% multi-enzyme supplement led to enhanced blood biochemical parameters, egg laying rate, and traits without affecting other parameters. | [30] | |
Apple peel waste | Broiler | 0, 50, or 100 g/kg and 0 or 500 mg/kg multi-enzyme | Heidarisafar et al. found increased gizzard and small intestine weights and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol levels, decreased low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol and malondialdehyde content and apparent ileal protein digestibility, while 100 g/kg apple peel waste decreased weight gain of heat-stressed broilers. | [29] |
Dried Citrus sinensis peel (DCSP) | Broiler | 0, 1.5, 3.0% | Ebrahimi et al. demonstrated that final weight, hot carcass weight, and carcass yield were not affected by the incorporation of DCSP at levels 1.5–3%. DCSP addition at 3% during the starter period (1–21 d) achieved the highest values for breast and pancreas weight and ileum length, but during the whole period (1–42 d), the lowest values for breast and thigh weight were indicated at 1.5 and 3% DCSP, respectively. However, reduced feed intake, body weight (BW) gain, and increased feed conversion rate during both the starter and growing periods were indicated. | [37] |
0, 1.5, 3.0% | Ebrahimi et al. DCSP inclusion at the dose of 3% led to a reduction of plasma cholesterol, LDL, triglycerides values, and glucose. | [38] | ||
0, 0.5%, 1.0%, 1.5%, 2.0% | Abbasi et al. observed an elevation in feed intake and BW gain and a decrease in liver and abdominal fat content and serum triglyceride levels, with feed conversion rate not being affected. | [35] | ||
0, 0.8% | Alzawqari et al. observed reduced serum glucose, cholesterol, LDL and HDL, triglyceride concentration and enhanced total antioxidant status without affecting feed intake, BW gain, feed conversion rate, and carcass traits with 0.8% DCSP level. | [36] | ||
Citrus sinensis peel | Broiler | 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50% substitution of maize | Agu et al. indicated a reduction in BW with the substitution of maize with higher than 20% sweet orange peel with feed intake, BW gain, feed conversion rate, weights of the most important carcass cuts (thigh, breast, back, neck, and shoulder) and internal organs (kidney, liver, heart, spleen, and lung) not being influenced. Dressing percent, drumstick, and wing were significantly affected at substitution levels of maize with sweet orange peel above 30%. | [40] |
Citrus pulp (CP) | Broiler | 0, 5, 10% | Mourão et al. observed elevated small intestine relative length and decreased carcass yield. Furthermore, PUFA meat content, feed intake and feed conversion rate increased, but daily weight gain decreased with a 10% CP dietary level. | [43] |
Ostrich | 0, 20% | Lanza et al. indicated that the iliofibularis muscle exhibited reduced ultimate pH and lighter color compared to the gastrocnemius muscle. M. gastrocnemius recorded higher moisture and reduced crude protein contents compared to M. iliofibularis. Reduced content of C14:0, C16:0, and C16:1 and increased content of C18:0, C20:2n-6, C20:4n-6, and C20:5n-3 in M. gastrocnemius compared to M. iliofibularis. The CP group exhibited elevated meat ultimate pH and decreased cooking losses, crude fat, and ash percentages compared to the control. The proportions of intramuscular saturated fatty acids (SFA) and MUFA were decreased in the CP group. The percentage of PUFA (C18:2n-6 and C20:4n-6) and n-6/n-3 ratio in the meat of the CP group was increased. | [45] | |
Dehydrated citrus pulp | Broiler | 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10% | Diaz-Vargas et al. did not observe any negative effect on BW, carcass traits, meat quality, and intestinal morphometry among the dietary treatments; however, decreased oxidation rate in chicken meat was observed. | [41] |
Orange pulp (OPU) | Broiler | Control (without additives), 50 g/kg OPU, 0.15 ppm Se, or 50 g/kg OPU and 0.15 ppm Se | Zoidis et al. (2022) reported that the OPU and Se-supplemented group and the Se group exhibited enhanced meat oxidative stability (assessed based on malondialdehyde (MDA) content) during frozen storage (90–210 d), with a synergistic action between OPU and Se. BW, cumulative feed intake, feed conversion ratio (FCR), carcass weight, weights of liver, heart, gizzard, fat pad, percentage of chickens standing at the feeder, and percentage of chickens standing at the drinker were not significantly different among dietary treatments. Meat lightness (L*), redness (a*), yellowness (b*), hue angle (H*), chroma (C*) were not significantly different. Meat pH and dressing percentage declined in the OPU groups. The PUFA and α-linolenic acid (ALA) contents in breast meat were elevated in the OPU groups. Feeding and drinking behaviors were not affected by the addition of OPU and/or Se. | [42] |
Laying hen | 0, 9% | Goliomytis et al. observed enhanced egg yolk oxidative stability but also a deterioration of performance and egg quality with 9% OPU. | [47] | |
Dried citrus pulp (DCP) | Laying hen | 0, 4, 8, 12, 16% | Nazok et al. stated that dried DCP up to 12% did not affect performance and egg quality in early-phase hens reducing at the same time egg cholesterol levels. | [48] |
Goose | 0, 4, 8, 12, 16% | Wang et al. found that dried DCP up to 12% in the diet did not influence weight gain, feed intake, feed/gain ratio, the carcass yields (%) of breast and leg meat, subcutaneous fat and skin, and abdominal fat. | [46] | |
Laying quail | 0, 3, 6% | Florou-Paneri et al. reported that BW increased in the DCP groups, while BW gain was not influenced among the dietary groups. Egg production declined in the 3% DCP group compared to the control, but no effect was observed in the 6% DCP group. Hatchability increased in the 6% DCP group compared to the control. Average egg weight was higher in the DCP groups. Average specific gravity was decreased in the 6% DCP group compared to the other groups. Mortality was not affected among the groups. | [49] | |
Citrus waste (CW) | Broiler | 0, 2.5, 5.0, 7.5% CW and multi-enzyme | Behera et al. indicated a linear reduction of plasma cholesterol, triglyceride, and aspartate aminotransferase values with increment levels of CW, while total protein, albumin, globulin, and blood urea nitrogen content were not influenced. | [39] |
Dried lemon (Citrus aurantifulia) pulp (DLP) | Broiler | 0, 2.5, 5.0, 7.5, 10, 12% | Basir et al. reported that 2.5–12% DLP dietary levels reduced final BW, daily weight gain, and deteriorated feed conversion rate. The 7.5–12% DLP levels reduced jejunal crypt depth and antibody titers against influenza disease virus and sheep red blood cells. | [44] |
Sunflower meal (SFM) | Broiler | 0, 4, 8, or 12% | Sangsoponjit et al. reported that BW, feed intake, FCR, mortality, and the European Production Efficiency Factor index of broilers were not significantly affected by the dietary treatments. Carcass percentage and cut yield of breast, fillet, three joint wings, thigh, and drumstick (including abdominal fat) were not different among the dietary treatments. Feed intake was higher in the 12% SFM broiler (22–42 d) group compared to the 8% SFM group. | [65] |
0, 70, 140, or 210 g/kg | Moghaddam et al. observed an enhancement with respect to BW gain, feed intake, and FCR with inclusion levels of SFM up to 140 g/kg, while 210 g SFM/kg had adverse effects on performance. Relative weights of the gastrointestinal tract and gizzard were elevated in the experimental groups. The activities of digestive enzymes (protease and α-amylase) were not affected by the inclusion of SFM in the diet. HDL cholesterol was elevated, while LDL was reduced in the experimental groups. With increasing levels of SFM in the diet, villus height decreased, and crypt depth increased in the duodenum and jejunum. | [66] | ||
0 or 15% | Araújo et al. reported that 15% SFM incorporation in a diet formulated on a total amino acid basis deteriorated FCR and BW gain and did not affect feed intake, while when the diet was formulated on a digestible amino acid basis, FCR was not affected among treatments. Carcass and cut yields were not affected in the SFM groups, while digesta viscosity was elevated in the 15% SFM group. | [67] | ||
0, 8, 16, and 24%, and three levels of enzyme blend | Araújo et al. indicated that the weight gain and FCR of broilers (21–42 d) deteriorated with increasing levels of SFM. The most favorable economic efficiency index was recorded in the 8% SFM group. Carcass, breast, breast fillet, and abdominal fat weights were reduced with increasing levels of SFM in the diet. | [68] | ||
0 or 20%, with or without enzyme complex | Tavernari et al. did not observe any interactions between SFM and the enzyme blend with respect to performance. In the starter phase and total period, feed intake was decreased, but weight gain did not differ. The feed/gain ratio was enhanced in the SFM groups in all phases. Weight gain was higher in the groups fed the enzyme complex in the starter phase. Dietary apparent metabolizable energy corrected for N values was not affected by the supplementation of the enzyme complex, while apparent metabolizability coefficients of P and Ca were enhanced. Carcass and cut yields were not influenced by the SFM or enzyme complex dietary addition. | [69] | ||
0, 4, 8, 12, or 16% SFM, with or without enzyme complex | De Oliveira et al. reported that growth performance deteriorated with the dietary addition of SFM, but weight gain and feed intake increased with the enzyme supplementation. Intestinal morphometry was impaired by the SFM inclusion in the diet, but the parameter was improved with the enzyme supplementation in the diet. With an increasing level of SFM, the villus height in the jejunum and the crypt depth in the duodenum and ileum were reduced linearly. Higher villus height in the duodenum and decreased crypt depth in the jejunum were observed in the enzyme-supplemented groups. Significant differences were observed with respect to villus height in the duodenum and ileum among the groups. Wing yields linearly increased with increment dietary levels of SFM. Thigh and leg yields were higher in the groups fed SFM than in the enzyme-supplemented groups. | [75] | ||
Group I (0% SFM or enzyme blend), group II (6% SFM in grower and 10% in finisher diet, with or without 0.01% enzyme blend), group III (8% in grower and 16% in finisher diet, with or without 0.01% enzyme blend) | Horvatovic et al. indicated an enhancement in weight gain and FCR by the enzyme supplementation during the grower phase, while weight gain decreased by the SFM addition in the diet during the finisher phase. Feed intake was unaffected by the inclusion of SFM or enzyme blend. The 16% SFM group had elevated ileal viscosity, and the interaction between diet and enzyme on the parameter was significant. Dressing percentage and breast, thigh and drumstick, and abdominal fat yields were not affected in the experimental groups. Decreased maltase activity was observed in the SFM groups. | [76] | ||
Laying hen | 8.26, 16.52, or 24.84% | Shi et al. did not observe any significant differences with respect to growth performance (BW gain, egg production, daily egg mass, daily feed intake, and feed conversion) and egg quality (average egg weight, egg specific gravity, shell strength, shell color, shell thickness, shell percentage, albumen percentage, yolk percentage, yolk color, and Haugh units). C17:0 fatty acid concentration in yolk was reduced in the SFM groups, while no differences were observed for yolk SFA, MUFA, and PUFA. Egg yolk cholesterol (at 6 wk) decreased in the SFM groups. | [77] | |
0, 10, 15, or 20% | Das et al. reported that there were no significant differences in egg quality traits, except for the Haugh unit, which was higher in the white dwarf line compared to the colored dwarf, and an increasing effect on the parameter was observed due to the inclusion of SFM in the diet. Significant differences in egg quality traits depending on the line (white-plumaged dwarf broiler breeder dam line or colored dwarf dam line hens) were observed. | [78] | ||
High-protein sunflower meal (HPSFM) | Broiler | Starter diet (from 5 to 15% HPSFM and from 20 to 29.9% soybean meal (SBM)), grower diet (from 10 to 25% HPSFM and from 5.5 to 20% SBM), finisher diet (from 15 to 26.5% HPSFM and from 0 to 11.3% SBM) | Gerzilov and Petrov did not observe any differences with respect to BW among treatments. The lowest costs for 1 kg weight gain were recorded in the group fed 10% HPSFM and 24.9% SBM during the starter phase (1–10 d), 20% HPSFM and 10.5% SBM during the grower phase (11–24 d), and 23% HPSFM and 3.5% SBM during the finisher phase. | [70] |
Group I (5, 8, and 12% in starter, grower, and finisher diets, respectively), group II (15, 20, and 22%, respectively), group III (32.95, 28.55, and 26.50%, respectively) | Kyrkelanov et al. reported a significant increase in BW at d 10 in groups I and II (5 and 15% HPSFM in the starter phase, respectively). In the grower and finisher periods, live BW was not significant among treatments. FCR was improved from d 0 to 10 in group I, while group III recorded the highest value among the treatments. During the grower and finisher phases, no significant differences were observed for FCR among treatments. The daily gain was not different among treatments at d 42. | [71] | ||
0, 10, 15% | Chobanova indicated that live weight was decreased, and the feed/gain ratio increased in the HPSFM groups. | [72] | ||
Low-fiber sunflower meal (LFSFM) | Broiler | 0, 25, 50, or 75% substitution of SBM with LFSFM, and 0 or 0.2 g/kg phytase | Ciurescu et al. reported that substitution of SBM with LFSFM beyond 25% reduced FCR and BW gain. No interactions were observed with regard to the inclusion of LFSFM and phytase on growth performance. Carcass traits were not affected in the experimental groups. Abdominal fat was reduced in the 50 and 75% LFSFM groups, while the weight of the small intestine was elevated. Plasma HDL cholesterol and total cholesterol increased by the inclusion of LFSFM in the diet. | [73] |
Sunflower cake (SC) | Broiler | 0, 5, 10, 15, or 20% SC, with or without enzyme complex | Berwanger et al. indicated that, with increasing levels of SC in the diet, the weight gain, final weight, and feed intake linearly decreased during d 1–21. During the 1–21 d period, carcass yield was reduced, and abdominal fat increased in the SC groups. Thigh, breast, and carcass yield increased with the supplementation of the enzyme complex in the diet. At d 21, villus height decreased, and crypt depth increased with increasing levels of SC. | [74] |
Dried distillers’ grains with solubles (DDGS) | Broiler | 0, 10, 40, 70, 100, 130, or 160 g/kg | Damasceno et al. reported that BW gain, feed intake, and FCR of broilers (22–42 d) were not significantly different among treatments. Serum total protein concentration, uric acid (UA), and gamma-glutamyl transferase were not affected, but there was a quadratic effect on cholesterol with the highest concentration at the 160 g/kg DDGS group. Blood glucose was elevated in the experimental groups, while serum albumin concentration and aspartate aminotransferase concentrations were higher in the 160 g/kg DDGS compared to the control. Carcass, breast, legs, and wings yield, abdominal fat percentage (42 d), meat pH, water retention capacity, cooking loss, shear force, luminosity (L*), redness (a*), and yellowness (b*) were not affected by dietary treatment. Volatilized ammonia levels, litter pH, and dry matter were not influenced by the inclusion of DDGS. Relative weights of the proventriculus, gizzard, pancreas, small and large intestine, and intestine length were not different among treatments, but relative liver weight decreased in the 10 g/kg DDGS group. | [85] |
5% conventional DDGS (control group), or 10, 15, or 20% high-protein DDGS (34% crude protein on a wet basis) | Fries-Craft and Bobeck indicated that BW was lower, feed intake was not influenced, and thus FCR was higher in the 15 and 20% high-protein DDGS groups compared to the control. The standardized ileal amino acid digestibility of lysine and methionine was found to be 80.9% and 88.6%, respectively. The N-corrected metabolizable energy of high-protein DDGS was determined to be 11.4 MJ/kg. | [90] | ||
0, 8, 16, 24% | Shim et al. reported that the BW gain of broilers was not significantly different at 42 d, but the parameter was elevated during 0–18 d in the DDGS groups. The percentage of the fat pad of female broilers was reduced with increasing levels of DDGS. The Pellet durability index was reduced due to the incorporation of DDGS. In the second experiment, higher BW gain in the DDGS groups compared to the control was observed. | [84] | ||
Starter diet (0 or 8% DDGS), grower diet (0, 7.5, 15, 22.5, or 30% DDGS) | Loar II et al. reported a linear decrease in pellet quality with increasing levels of DDGS. BW gain and relative liver weight decreased linearly with increasing levels of DDGS during the starter phase. Broilers that were not fed DDGS during the started phase had reduced feed consumption with increasing levels of DDGS during the grower phase; however, the 8% DDGS group (starter phase) was not affected by DDGS inclusion during the grower phase. Feed conversion, mortality, ileal viscosity, and cecal Clostridium perfringens and Escherichia coli concentrations were not affected in the grower DDGS groups. | [86] | ||
0, 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25% | Min et al. reported that increased b* (yellowness) values and shear force, decreased cooking loss, and differences in the fatty acid profiles of the breast and thigh were observed. SFA, MUFA, and PUFA were not affected, but PUFA/SFA ratio was elevated total superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity in breast meat and liver tissue decreased. Total SOD activity in breast and liver tissue decreased in the DDGS groups. Glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activity in the liver was similar between 0 and 15% DDGS groups. MDA production of breast muscle was not affected, but liver MDA increased. | [88] | ||
Starter and grower diet (0 or 8%), finisher diet (0, 7, 14, 21, or 28%) | Loar II et al. indicated an increase in FCR and a decrease in BW gain during 0–28 d. During the finisher phase, increasing levels of DDGS in the 14, 21, and 28% DDGS groups, BW gain, and feed intake decreased linearly in comparison with the control. Dressing percentage and breast meat yield decreased linearly with increasing dietary levels of DDGS. Large intestine and relative gizzard weights increased linearly with increasing levels of DDGS during the finisher phase. E. coli concentrations in the ileum exhibited a linear reduction with high levels of DDGS. Interactions between E. coli and Listeria monocytogenes in the ileum and for L. monocytogenes in the ceca were observed during the pre-finisher and finisher phases. | [87] | ||
0, 6, 12, 18, or 24% | Schilling et al. did not observe any differences in terms of cooking loss, instrumental color, and consumer acceptability of breast meat among the groups, but the shear force of breast meat from the control group was slightly reduced compared to the 18 and 24% DDGS groups. The proximate composition of breast and thigh meat was no different among treatments. Linoleic acid and PUFA increased linearly with increasing levels of DDGS, and thiobarbituric acid (TBA) values were higher in the 18 and 24% DDGS groups at d 5 in comparison with the control and 6% DDGS groups. | [89] | ||
Laying hen | 0, 8, 16, 24, or 32% | Loar II et al. reported that egg production was higher in the 16% DDGS group compared to the 0, 8, and 24% DDGS groups, while the 32% exhibited intermediate values with no significant differences with the other treatments. Incorporation of DDGS in the diet led to darker (L*) and redder (a*) yolk compared with the control group. The flavor and overall consumer acceptability of eggs were slightly better in the case of DDGS-fed hens compared to the non-DDGS-fed hens. | [93] | |
0, 5, 10, 15, 20, or 25% | Masa’deh et al. reported that daily feed intake, egg production, and overall weight gain were unaffected by the inclusion of DDGS in the diet. Egg weight decreased at dietary levels of DDGS past 15% during 24–46 wk, while the parameter was not different during 47–76 wk. Yolk color increased with increasing dietary levels of DDGS. N and P retention was higher in the 25% DDGS group, and N and P excretion decreased linearly with increasing levels of DDGS in the diet. | [94] | ||
0, 17, 35, or 50% | Sun et al. indicated that total PUFA increased in the DDGS groups, while choline and cholesterol contents were higher in the 50% DDGS during the beginning of the 24-wk study period but did not differ at the end of the period in comparison with the other treatments. Lutein content increased linearly with increasing dietary DDGS levels. | [97] | ||
0, 6, 12, or 18%, and 0 or 250 mg enzyme mixture/kg | Abd El-Hack et al. reported that the lowest egg production and daily feed intake and the worst FCR were observed in the 18% DDGS group. Shell thickness and shell percentage were increased in the 6% DDGS group. The 6% and 12% DDGS groups exhibited higher egg weights compared to the control and 18% DDGS groups. The interaction effect of DDGS and the enzyme mixture was significant in most of the egg traits. Yolk color density increased with increasing dietary levels of DDGS. Yolk cholesterol, total fat, and total USFA increased in the DDGS groups. | [95] | ||
0, 5, 10, 15, or 20%, with or without two different enzymes | Shalash et al. indicated that no significant differences were observed with respect to digestibility coefficient values of crude protein, ether extract, crude fiber, nitrogen-free extract, BW gain, feed intake, and egg quality by the addition of DDGS in the diet. No significant differences were observed for semen quality, fertility, hatchability, and BW of chicks in the hatch in the experimental groups. Egg production, egg number, and egg mass were elevated in the 5% DDGS group. In the 15 and 20% DDGS groups, yolk color and shell thickness increased, while egg production, egg number, egg weight, and egg mass decreased, with the FCR being the worst compared to the 0, 5, and 10% DDGS groups. Enzyme supplementation exhibited favorable results with respect to the digestibility coefficient value of ether extract and egg traits. | [96] | ||
Laying hen | 0, 10, 20% | Wu-Haan et al. reported that egg production, egg weight, and feed intake were not influenced by dietary treatments. NH3 emissions of hens (21–26 wk) were reduced by 24% and H2S emissions by 58% in the 20% DDGS group compared to the control. | [99] | |
0, 25, 50, 75, or 100% substitution of SBM with DDGS (corresponds to 0, 5.5, 11, 16.5, and 22% DDGS in the diet, respectively), and additives (without, 250 mg enzyme/kg, or 200 mg vitamin E/kg) | Abd El-Hack et al. reported that digestion coefficient values of nutrients were improved in the 25% DDGS substitution group of hens (22–42 wk), whereas the 100% DDGS group exhibited a reduction of the parameter. The amount of daily excreted N was reduced in the 25 and 50% DDGS groups, while N excretion was increased in the 75 or 100% DDGS groups. P excretion was reduced with increasing substitution levels of DDGS. The supplementation with the enzyme nor vitamin E did not affect the studied parameters. | [98] | ||
Duck | 0, 5, 10, 15, 20% | Ding et al. reported a linear and quadratic decrease in BW (42 d), average daily gain, and average daily feed intake from d 11 to 42, breast meat yield, the moisture and protein content in the breast meat, and dietary dry matter and ether extract utilization with increasing levels of DDGS in the diet. b* value of the breast meat and serum total cholesterol and triglyceride concentrations exhibited a linear and quadratic increase. No negative effects were observed with respect to growth performance, carcass characteristics, serum biochemical indexes, meat physical and chemical quality, nutrient utilization, and the standardized ileal digestibility of amino acids of the diets in the 10% DDGS group compared to the control. | [100] | |
Low-oil distillers dried grains with solubles (LO-DDGS) | Broiler | 0, 10, or 20% | Guney et al. indicated that feed efficiency (0–18 d) was enhanced in the 10% LO-DDGS group compared to the 20% LO-DDGS group. Abdominal fat pad weights were elevated in the 10 and 20% LO-DDGS groups. BW and fat pad weights varied depending on the source (sample) and levels of DDGS. | [91] |
Grape pomace (GP) and fermented grape pomace (FGP) | Broiler | Basal diet (no additives), 0.25 g/kg synthetic antioxidants (AO), 15 g/kg GP, or 15 g/kg FGP | Gungor et al. reported that mortality rate, dressing percentage, and relative weights of heart, liver, gizzard, gastrointestinal tract, abdominal fat, spleen, and edible internal organs were not different among the treatments. pH and L*, a*, and b* values, MDA level, pH, and color of breast meat were not different among the treatments. Elevated serum GPx and SOD concentrations, and ileum lamina muscularis thickness were observed in the GP groups, while caecal bacterial species were not affected. Dietary inclusion of FGP increased BW, the serum catalase (CAT) level, and decreased the caecal C. perfringens count, while ileal morphology was not affected. The AO groups exhibited similar growth performance to the FGP group but recorded better BW and FCR than the GP group. The villus height and villus height-to-crypt depth ratio were higher in the AO group compared to the control. Lamina muscularis mucosa thickness was higher in the GP group compared to the FGP group. | [109] |
Grape pomace | Broiler | 5, 15, 30 g/kg | Goñí et al. observed increasing content of α-tocopherol concentration in liver with increasing GP dietary levels, but it was lower than in the case of vitamin E dietary supplementation. Furthermore, lipid oxidation of meat during refrigeration storage was reduced. | [108] |
0, 5.0, 7.5, 10 g/kg | Aditya et al. found that BW, feed intake, FCR, serum levels of glucose, triglyceride, and HDL cholesterol were not influenced. Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) linearly increased with increment levels of GP. Meat color values such as redness decreased. | [107] | ||
0, 3, 6% | Turcu et al. found a higher meat color difference for breast and thigh meat, increased meat hardness, improved meat color and texture, and decreased TBARS in thigh meat. Breast meat yellowness value increased at 6% white GP dietary inclusion, while the intensity of breast meat red color (C*) was reduced at 6% red GP dietary inclusion. | [110] | ||
0, 2.5, 4.5, 5.5, 7.5% | Kumanda et al. reported no effect of red GP dietary incorporation on weight gain, blood biochemical parameters, serum biochemistry, carcass traits, and meat quality characteristics except for increased meat redness, while feed conversion efficiency was higher at 5.5 and 7.5% GP dietary levels. | [112] | ||
0, 1, 2, 3% | Haščík et al. indicated an increase in the final body, giblets, and breast weight at a 3% GP dietary level. | [113] | ||
0, 1, 2, 3% | Jurčaga et al. did not observe any effect on lipid oxidation in meat. | [114] | ||
0, 2.5, 5, 7.5% | Bennato et al. showed an elevation in PUFA values and a reduction in the lipid oxidation rate of meat without affecting meat pH, cooking loss, and lightness. | [115] | ||
0, 1.5% | Lichovnikova et al. reported no negative effects on feed intake, feed/gain ratio, and an improvement in apparent nutrient digestion, diet metabolizable energy, number of the considered beneficial bacteria Lactobacillus spp. in the ileum, and plasma antioxidant activity. | [119] | ||
0% GP, 200 mg/kg vitamin E, 5% GP, 7.5%, 10% | Ebrahimzadeh et al. did not observe any negative effects on growth performance, while improved antioxidant and immune responses at dietary GP levels up to 10% were reported. | [120] | ||
0, 2.5, 5, 10 g/kg | Kasapidou et al. indicated no effect on meat lightness and yellowness, lipid oxidation levels, and bacterial spoilage. | [117] | ||
Heat-stressed broiler | 0 g/kg (rearing at comfort temperatures), or 0, 20, 40, and 60 g/kg (rearing at comfort temperatures initially and heat stress application from d 25 to 42) | Hosseini-Vashan et al. reported that feed intake linearly increased with increasing levels of GP (starter and grower periods), while it linearly reduced blood concentration of triglycerides, plasma cholesterol, LDL, and enzyme activity of aspartate aminotransferase. MDA concentration decreased in the GP groups, and GPx and SOD activities increased. Blood concentration of HDL cholesterol and total protein (24 d) increased in the experimental groups. Antibody titer against sheep red blood cells, growth performance, relative length of different small intestine segments, and jejunal morphology indices were not influenced by GP inclusion in a heat-stressed broiler. Thigh, drumstick, bursa, and thymus percentages were elevated abdominal fat percentage decreased in the GP groups. | [111] | |
Laying hen | 0, 4, 6% | Kara et al. reported that feed intake, feed efficiency, live weight and egg production, eggshell thickness, eggshell ratio, albumen index, egg-specific gravity, egg yolk index, Haugh unit, yolk color, total protein, total cholesterol, and triglyceride levels were not affected. Egg yolk and plasma malondialdehyde and serum glucose levels decreased. Enhancement of egg weight at 4% GP inclusion and of liver weight at 4 and 6% GP was observed. | [121] | |
Heat-stressed laying hen | 0, 1, 2, 3% | Reis et al. found that heat-stressed hens at the end of the productive cycle showed elevated serum total antioxidant capacity and GPx and SOD activities, and improved performance, and antioxidant capacity, while it reduced lipid peroxidation rate in the yolk. | [122] | |
Quail | 0, 2, 4, 6% | Fróes et al. reported no effect on egg production, feed intake, FCR, Haugh unit, and eggshell thickness. Albumen weight, egg-specific gravity, and egg weight were linearly reduced with increment dietary levels of GP. | [123] | |
Wine-grape pomace flour (WGPF) | Broiler | 0% WGPF, 20% red WGPF, or 20% white WGPF | Reyes et al. reported that BW, daily weight gain, feed intake, and FCR were not affected in the white WGPF group. FCR was higher in the red WGPF group. Ether extract of breast meat was higher in the red WGPF group due to the higher inclusion of soy oil in the diet compared to the other groups. The antioxidant capacity of breast and leg meat exhibited an increase in the white WGPF group compared to the other groups. | [116] |
Grape pomace concentrate (GPC) | Broiler | Control group (without GP or additives), 15, 30, or 60 g/kg GP, or 200 mg/kg α-tocopheryl acetate (vitamin E) | Brenes et al. reported that growth performance, apparent ileal digestibility of crude protein, the relative weight of abdominal fat, liver, pancreas, and spleen, and the relative intestinal length were not affected by the incorporation of GPC in the diet. Fat digestibility was higher in the vitamin E-supplemented group. The ileal and fecal digestibility of hydrolyzable polyphenols was lower in the GPC groups. Antioxidant activity in the GPC diet, ileal content, and excreta recorded higher scavenging free radical capacity compared to the other groups. The lipid oxidation in breast meat was reduced (1, 4, and 7 d of refrigeration) in the vitamin E-supplemented group. Oxidative stability in breast meat was similar (1, 4, and 7 d) between the GPC and the vitamin E-supplemented groups. The bioavailability of hydrolyzable polyphenols was higher than that of condensed tannins. | [118] |
Olive cake (OC) | Broiler | 0, 5, or 10% OC and 0.2, or 0.4 g/kg yeast | Al-Harthi reported that the best BW gain, FCR, and European production efficiency index were recorded in the 5% OC plus 0.4 g/kg yeast-supplemented group. The highest survivability rate (100%) was recorded in the 5 and 10% OC plus 0.2 g/kg yeast and the 10% OC plus 0.4 g/kg yeast-supplemented groups. Carcass traits and inner organs were not affected by the addition of OC to the diet. | [128] |
0, 5, 10% OC and 0 or 500 FTU/kg of phytase | Al-Harthi et al. indicated that the growth rate, European production index, and economic efficiency of broilers (7–28 d) were not affected by OC dietary inclusion, while these parameters increased with phytase supplementation. Plasma cholesterol and triglycerides were reduced, and plasma inorganic phosphorus increased with OC and phytase addition. The economic efficiency of broilers fed 10% OC was the highest among treatments. | [130] | ||
0, 5, 10% OC with or without galzym or phytase | Al-Harthi et al. reported that incorporation of OC up to 10% did not affect BW gain, final BW, survival rate, FCR, dressing percentage, inner and immune organs ratios to live BW 5% OC and galzyme enzyme significantly increased feed intake. 10% OC and galzyme enzyme achieved the best FCR. | [129] | ||
0, 10, 20% with or without 1 or 2 g/kg citric acid | Al-Harthi and Attia indicated that 10% OC inclusion did not affect the following parameters of broilers (28–49 d): BW gain, feed intake, FCR, survival rate, European production efficiency index, meat pH, meat color, water holding capacity, meat tenderness, dressing percentage, abdominal fat, the proportions of heart, pancreas, intestine, and cecum, red blood cell characteristics, hepatocellular leakage markers; however, the liver proportion was lower compared to the control group. 20% OC and 1 g/kg citric acid did not affect FCR and the health status of broilers. | [131] | ||
0, 2, 4% OC with or without Bacillus licheniformis (BL) | Saleh et al. reported that the inclusion of OC and BL did not influence feed intake, improved weight gain, and reduced FCR, abdominal fat, or blood total cholesterol. Blood total protein, albumin, Newcastle disease titer, and HDL cholesterol were elevated in the experimental diets. Muscle oleic and linoleic acids, and vitamin E were elevated in the 4% OC and BL group, while linolenic acid was elevated in all groups but not in the BL and control groups. Liver MDA was reduced in the BL group and in the 2% or 4% OC and BL groups. | [132] | ||
Laying hen | 0, 10, or 20% and 0, 0.1, or 0.2% citric acid | Al-Harthi and Attia reported that in the OC groups without citric acid addition, there was no effect on laying performance, egg quality, or liver function indices in laying hens (40–56 wk), but feed intake was increased, and FCR deteriorated compared to the OC-free groups. The relative weight of the liver was reduced when 0.1% citric acid was added compared with the other citric acid-supplemented groups, while the relative weight of the ovary increased compared to the control group. The 0.1% citric acid-supplemented group exhibited similar FCR to the unsupplemented control. | [151] | |
Quail | 0, 2.5, 5, 7.5% | Ozcan et al. found that the 5 and 7.5% OC meal groups recorded reduced serum total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol levels, and elevated cholesterol levels in the breast muscle. The OC groups had decreased SFA and PUFA, and increased MUFA and total USFA levels in the breast muscle. 5% OC meal was recommended in quail diets. | [152] | |
Olive cake and olive leaves (OL) | Broiler | 0, 5, or 10% OC, or 0, 5, or 10% OL | Pečjak et al. did not observe significant differences in growth performance (final live weight, feed intake) and in the mineral content in the femur, tibia, and humerus among dietary treatments. Higher feed intake in the 10% OL group compared to the 5% OL group during the first wk. In the 5 and 10% OL groups, Cu content in the humerus was higher without affecting bone mineralization. | [127] |
Defatted olive cake | Broiler | 0 or 2% | Rebollada-Merino et al. indicated that broilers (14–35 d) had increased villus height in the duodenum and villus and crypt depth in the duodenum and the cecum, which may improve mucosal renewal. | [133] |
Semi-solid olive cake | Broiler | 0, 82.5, 165.0 g/kg | Branciari et al. reported that growth rate increased with increasing levels of OC, and meat antioxidant status and oxidative stability were enhanced, especially at 165 g/kg OC was applied. Meat quality parameters, such as meat color traits, pH24, drip loss, cooking loss, and shear force, were not affected. | [138] |
Olive pulp (OP) | Broiler | 0, 5, 10% | Tufarelli et al. reported that there was no effect on growth performance, dressing percentage, breast yield, or breast meat fatty acid composition. The meat was less susceptible to lipid and protein oxidation in the experimental diets. Breast muscle pH24, duodenal villus height, crypt depth, and villus height-to-crypt depth ratio, villus surface area were higher in the 10% OP diet. | [134] |
T1: 0% OP, T2: 25 or 50 g OP/kg, T3: 50 g OP/kg, T4: 50 or 80 g OP/kg | Papadomichelakis et al. reported that FCR was higher in T2 and T3 in comparison with the control group during the grower phase, while it was higher in T3 compared to T1, T2, and control groups during the finisher phase. C18:1ω9 and total MUFA contents in breast muscle were elevated in the OP diets. Decreased oxidative stability, lower pH24, and an increased lightness of breast meat were observed in T3 compared to the control, T1, and T2 groups. Papadomichelakis et al. suggested that 25 g OP/kg in grower diets and 50 g OP/kg in finisher diets could be used. | [135] | ||
0, 2.5, 5, 8% | Pappas et al. reported that no differences were observed in terms of final BW, carcass yield, total antioxidant activity, and the values of serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase/aspartate aminotransaminase (SGOT/AST), serum glutamic pyruvic transaminase/alanine aminotransferase (SGPT/ALT), blood urea nitrogen (BUN), γ-glutamyl transferase (γ-GT), alkaline phosphatase, cholesterol, total protein, albumins, globulins, and hematocrit among treatments. FCR was not affected by the inclusion of up to 5% OP, while in the 8% OP group, the parameter was statistically lower. | [140] | ||
0, 50, and 100 g/kg processed or unprocessed OP with or without enzyme (ENZ) blend | Sayehban et al. reported that there were no significant differences in feed intake, weight gain, feed efficiency, energy intake, energy efficiency, protein intake, protein efficiency, feed cost per kg live weight, and production index between dietary treatments. The inclusion of processed OP improved feed and energy efficiencies, while the enzyme blend did not affect the studied parameters. | [141] | ||
50 or 100 g/kg | Sayehban et al. indicated that serum triglycerides and cholesterol levels, jejunum weight, and length were decreased by OP inclusion. Processed OP decreased jejunum weight and length, jejunum relative weight, left cecum length, serum triglycerides, and very LDL cholesterol levels. Enzyme supplementation had no effect on any parameter. 100 g/kg OP levels increased jejunum relative weight and jejunum length. | [137] | ||
Laying hen | 2 control diets, 160 g/kg OP with or without probiotics | Afsari et al. reported that OP dietary addition did not affect egg production and egg mass, BW, and excreta pH, while feed intake, FCR ratio increased, and serum levels of cholesterol and HDL decreased. At sampling week 3, the Haugh unit, yolk color, and shell weight were reduced, while at sampling week 7, probiotic treatment of feed decreased the Haugh unit. At wk 7, yolk color decreased in the OP group. Probiotic treatment decreased egg production and egg mass. | [148] | |
0, 4.5, or 9.0% OP with or without 0 or 0.05% enzyme | Zangeneh and Torki reported that experimental diets did not show any significant difference in overall egg production, egg mass, FCR, and feed intake, while eggshell weight was higher in the OP groups than in the control diet. The 9% OP group showed the highest egg weight and decreased Haugh unit compared with the other experimental diets. Enzyme supplementation did not affect egg quality characteristics. | [149] | ||
0 or 9% OP with or without commercial cocktail enzyme | Zarei et al. indicated a reduction in egg production and blood triglycerides levels, and an increase of the yolk index in the 9% OP group, while there was no effect on feed intake and egg mass between OP and control groups, and between enzyme-fed and control groups. Enzyme supplementation enhanced FCR during wk 6. | [150] | ||
Quail | 0, 50, or 100 g/kg OP (irradiated or not) | Abd El-Moneim et al. suggested that 5% OP or irradiated OP has the highest live BW and daily BW gain and the lowest values of daily feed intake and FCR, followed by the 10% OP group. Digestibility coefficients such as dry matter, organic matter, and crude protein were not affected in the experimental groups except for crude fiber. No effects were recorded in serum levels of total protein, albumin, liver enzymes, UA, creatinine, and lipid constituents of quails in the OP groups, but LDL and serum MDA was reduced. Serum glutathione was reduced, and glutathione reductase was not affected in the OP groups. Antibody titer against sheep erythrocytes was increased in the OP groups. | [153] | |
Laying quail | 0.1% Aspergillus awamori, 5% OP, 5% OP and A. awamori, 10% OP or 10% and 0.1% A. awamori | Abd El-Moneim et al. reported that the experimental diets had increased egg weight, and final BW, feed consumption, FCR, and egg mass were not affected by dietary treatment. Yolk (%) and yolk:albumin ratio were improved in 5% OP and 0.1% A. awamori, 10% OP, and 10% OP and 0.1% A. awamori. All experimental groups had enhanced egg shape index except for the 10% OP group during 16–20 wk. Yolk contents of cholesterol and total lipids and serum levels of triglycerides, cholesterol, and LDL cholesterol decreased in almost all groups fed A. awamori-treated diets. Glutathione content and glutathione reductase activity increased, and lipid peroxidation was reduced. | [154] | |
Olive pulp and commercial enzyme blend | Broiler | Unprocessed OP (50 g/kg, 100 g/kg, 50 g/kg with ENZ, 100 g/kg with ENZ), processed OP (50 g/kg, 100 g/kg, 50 g/kg with ENZ, 100 g/kg with ENZ), and control groups (without OP, and without OP with ENZ) | Sayehban et al. reported that carcass traits such as live BW, de-feathered BW, full abdomen carcass weight, empty abdomen carcass weight, eviscerated carcass weight, breast weight, thigh, and drumstick weight (legs), wing weight, and relative breast and wing weights were not different among dietary treatments. The 50 g OP/kg inclusion increased the eviscerated carcass, leg, and neck percentage values. Processing of OP increased breast percentages in broilers. | [136] |
Olive meal (OM) | Broiler | 0, 2, 4, 6, and 8% and enzymes | Sateri et al. indicated that BW and BW gain, feed intake, feed conversion efficiency, carcass traits, meat cuts (breast, drumsticks, and wings), the cecum microbiota, blood LDL and HDL cholesterol, triglycerides, total protein, albumin, glucose, and UA were not significantly different among the dietary groups. However, total cholesterol was higher in the 2% OM group (no enzyme supplementation) at 42 d compared to the 4% OM group (with enzyme addition). Birds fed 4% OM exhibited higher antibody titers after vaccinations against infectious bronchitis virus and Gumboro disease. | [142] |
Olive pomace (OPO) | Broiler | 0, 2.5, 5, 7.5% | Nasopoulou et al. reported higher growth rates at the 5 and 7.5% OPO groups, while the 5% OPO group had more potent in vitro antithrombotic properties compared to the control group. Grilled broiler meat of the 5% OPO group had acceptable sensory properties. | [139] |
Olive pomace extract (OPE) | Broiler | Control (no additives), 100 ppm monensin, 500 or 1500 ppm OPE | Herrero-Encinas et al. found that OPE addition up to 1500 ppm did not affect daily gain, feed intake, and FCR. 500 ppm OPE supplementation decreased duodenal crypt depth, mannitol concentration, and ileal IL-8 expression in comparison with the control group. | [147] |
Control (no additives), 100 pm monensin, or 750 ppm OPE | Herrero-Encinas et al. reported that average daily gain was increased and FCR decreased in the experimental diets with no effect on feed intake. Bacterial composition at a family level in the caeca of broilers, plasma, and intestinal bile acid composition was not affected in the experimental groups. The OPE group showed a reduction of IL-8 expression in the ileum, while upregulation of the expression of TGF-β4 and Bu-1 in both experimental groups was observed. | [146] | ||
Olive oil mill wastewater (OMWW) permeate or retentate | Broiler | - | Gerasopoulos et al. reported that broilers of the experimental groups had lower protein oxidation and lipid peroxidation levels and higher total antioxidant capacity in plasma and tissues. CAT activity in erythrocytes and tissues was significantly increased in the experimental groups. Erythrocytes in broilers with low glutathione (GSH) showed an increase in GSH levels with the inclusion of OMWW retentate, but in broilers with high GSH, it was reduced. | [143] |
Pomegranate peel powder (PPP) | Broiler | Control group, or 0.5% colostin antibiotic, or 2, 3, 4 g PPP/kg, or 2, 3, 4 g PPP and 1 cm3 probiotic | Abdel Baset et al. reported that live BW (5 wk) and BW gain (1–5 wk) were highest in the 2 and 4 g PPP, and positive control (PC, with antibiotic supplementation) groups compared to the negative control (NC, without additives) and other PPP groups. Feed intake was unaffected among dietary treatments but was affected during 1–3 wk of age. FCR was unaffected by the inclusion of PPP or additives in the diet. Daily feed conception and FCR were not affected by PPP dietary addition. The highest amounts of dressing and thigh output were recorded in the 3.0 g PPP plus 1 cm3 probiotic and in the 4.0 g PPP plus 1 cm3 probiotic/kg diet. The liver percentage was lower in the PPP-supplemented groups compared to the PC and NC groups (5 wk), while heart and gizzard were lower in the PC and NC groups compared to the PPP or additive-supplemented groups. AST was reduced in the 3 g PPP plus 1 cm3 probiotics/kg diet and 4 g PPP/kg groups compared to the NC and PC groups. Alanine aminotransferase decreased in the 3 g and 4 g PPP plus 1 cm3 probiotics/kg groups compared to the PC and NC groups. Urea and creatinine concentrations were lower in all treatments compared to the ones with no inclusion levels. Creatinine, total protein, and albumin concentrations were elevated in all treatments except for the NC group, and the PC group exhibited the lowest values. IgM and lysozyme were increased due to the incorporation of PPP in the diets. Reduced oxidative rancidity of meat was observed in the PPP groups. | [159] |
Laying hen | 2 or 4% | Eid et al. reported that the negative effects of oxidative stress induced by dexamethasone on BW and egg production were alleviated in the PPP groups. Plasma cholesterol, triglyceride contents, and lipid peroxidation indicators (MDA) were reduced in the PPP groups, while the antioxidative enzymes (SOD, CAT, and GPx) and total antioxidant blood capacity were enhanced. | [169] | |
Quail | 2.5, 5.0, or 7.5% | Abbas et al. found that final BW was similar between treatments, while the 7.5% PPP group had the highest feed intake, and the feed intake in 2.5 and 5% PPP groups were not affected. FCR, egg production, egg numbers, egg weight, and egg mass were enhanced in the PPP groups. Serum cholesterol, triglyceride, glucose concentration, and GPT, 5% PPP) were reduced, and total protein increased, while the GOT to GPT ratio was not affected. PPP groups exhibited the highest relative weight in liver and heart, villus height, and crypt depth. 5 and 7.5% PPP groups recorded the highest ratio of villi length/villi depth. Liver weight, villus length, and crypt depth were higher in females than in males. | [171] | |
Pomegranate peel (PP) | Broiler | Control (no additives), vitamin E (100 mg/kg), or pomegranate peel (15,000 mg/kg), and others | Rajani et al. reported that the experimentally induced ascites mortality and MDA occurrence in meat (PP inclusion had the best effect) were decreased, and the right ventricular weight ratio was improved in the experimental groups. Growth performance was not affected, and meat shelf-life was extended in the experimental groups. | [161] |
2, 4, 6, or 8 g/kg PP or 0, 200 g/ton α-tocopherol acetate (vitamin E) | Akuru et al. indicated that the feed intake and FCR were increased in the vitamin E group at wk 3, but FCR was comparable to the control, 4, and 6 g/kg PP groups. The average final BW and average daily weight gain exhibited the highest values in the 2 and 4 g/kg PP groups, and the 2 g/kg PP groups had enhanced FCR and protein efficiency ratios in comparison to the vitamin E group. Thigh weight was the highest in the 4 g/kg PP group, while breast weight was the highest in the 8 g/kg PP group in comparison with the vitamin E group. The highest spleen and gizzard weights values were in the 4 g/kg PP group compared to the control (no additives) group, and nutrient digestibility was improved in comparison with the vitamin E group. The concentration of serum aspartate aminotransferase was reduced in the 4 g/kg PP group, while CAT enzyme activity in meat was the highest in the 8 g/kg PP group. The 4 g/kg PP group had better performance, digestibility, carcass, and organ indices compared to the vitamin E group. | [160] | ||
Urea treated pomegranate peel (UTPP) | Broiler | 0, 15, 30, or 50 g/kg | Hosseini-Vashan and Raei-Moghadam reported that BW gain increased during the start and overall experimental periods but decreased feed intake during starter and growing periods. FCR was enhanced in the experimental groups. Increasing levels of UTPP quadratically increased the breast yield, and the liver and abdominal fat decreased. The concentration of blood glucose, HDL, and globulin linearly increased with increasing UTPP dietary levels, while the plasma albumin, alkaline phosphatase, alanine aminotransferase, lactate dehydrogenase, cholesterol, LDL, and malondialdehyde concentrations were reduced at day 42 The bursa percentage increased with increasing levels of UTPP. The primary total, IgM, and IgG responses and the secondary total and IgG responses against sheep red blood cells were enhanced in the UTPP groups. The villus height, crypt depth, and villus height/crypt depth ratio, while decreasing the villus width, were increased, and the oxidative stability and water-holding capacity of breast meat was enhanced in the UTPP groups. | [165] |
Pomegranate by-products (PB) | Broiler | 0, 0.5, 1.0, or 2.0% | Ahmed et al. reported that crude protein and moisture contents were elevated, while ether extract in breast and thigh meat and cholesterol in breast meat were reduced. SFAs were reduced, and the sum of mono-unsaturated and n-3 fatty acids was increased in breast and thigh meat. n-6/n-3 ratio of breast and thigh meat was lower in 1 and 2% PB groups. The TBARS values and pH of breast and thigh meat were decreased in the BP groups. | [157] |
Fermented pomegranate byproducts (FPB) | Broiler | 0, 0.5, 1.0, or 2.0% | Bostami et al. reported that average daily weight gain during the finisher and overall period was increased in 1 and 2% FPB groups, while daily feed intake and FCR were not affected. Fecal pH tended to decrease in 0.5 and 2% FPB groups. Fecal ammonia emission was reduced in all the FPB groups, and hydrogen sulfide emission was decreased in 0.5 and 1% FPB groups. Feed cost per unit of weight gain was lower in the 1 and 2% FPB groups. | [158] |
0, 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0% | Ahmed et al. reported that increasing levels of FPB linearly increased weight gain and feed intake, and linearly reduced FCR. In the breast meat, crude protein, iron, magnesium, and sodium content were linearly higher, while cholesterol was linearly reduced. In thigh meat, ether extract and cholesterol were linearly lower with high moisture. The SFA % was linearly and quadratically reduced in breast and thigh meat, while MUFA of the breast (linear and quadratic) and n-3 fatty acids of breast and thigh (linear) increased in the FPB groups. The n-6/n-3 ratio of breast meat decreased in the FPB groups. The hypocholesterolaemic to the hypercholesterolaemic ratio of thigh meat increased with FPB inclusion. Breast and thigh meat had reduced TBARS and pH values in the FPB groups. | [162] | ||
Raw (PPO) and fermented (FPPO) pomegranate pomace | Broiler | Control (no PP), 5 or 10 g/kg PPO, and 5 or 10 g/kg FPPO | Gungor et al. indicated that BW and FCR, serum GPx, SOD, and CAT levels were not affected in the experimental groups; however, malondialdehyde in breast meat was reduced. Caecal C. perfringens count and the villus height were reduced in the 10% PPO, 5% FPPO, and 10% FFPO groups compared to the control group. Ileum morphology was negatively affected by PPO and FPPO dietary inclusion. Crypt depth increased in the 5% PPO and 10% FPPO groups compared to the control and 10% PPO groups. The villus height-to-crypt depth ratio was reduced in the 5% PPO, 5% FPPO, and 10% FPPO groups. | [163] |
Pomegranate pulp (PPU) | Broiler | 0, 40, 70, or 100 g/kg | Hosseini-Vashan and Raei-Moghadam investigated the effect of PPU in thermoneutral and heat-stressed broilers in comparison with no added PPU diets. The concentration of uric acid, malondialdehyde, the enzyme activity of GPx, total antioxidant capacity, abdominal fat, and liver percentage were significantly affected by the inclusion of PPU in the heat-stressed broilers. Plasma protein and the enzyme activities of SOD were reduced in the PPU groups compared to the thermoneutral group. Plasma The plasma cholesterol and LDL concentrations were decreased compared to the control. | [164] |
Pomegranate seed oil (PSO) | Broiler | 0.0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5% with or without 2% linseed oil (LO) | Manterys et al. reported that white blood cell levels were increased in 0.5 and 1% PSO supplemented with LO groups. Total cholesterol was increased with 1.5% PSO or with LO supplementation. PSO dietary treatment resulted in c9,t11 conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) concentration-dependent deposition in adipose tissue. ALA content was increased, and the n-6/n-3 ratio was reduced with LO addition. PSO and ALA influenced oleic acid proportion in adipose tissue. Liver parameters were not affected by PSO or LO incorporation. Health status was not affected by PSO dietary inclusion. | [166] |
0.0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5% PSO with 0.0 or 2.0% LO | Szymczyk and Szczurek reported that the feed-to-gain ratio was enhanced with PSO inclusion in the diet of broilers (22–42 d). The abdominal fat percentage was higher in the 1.5% PSO group. Deposition of CLA in breast lipids increased with increasing levels of PSO. PUFA increased, MUFA increased, and SFA in breast lipids was not affected in the PSO groups. 2% LO incorporation increased total PUFA, decreased total MUFA proportions, and enhanced the n-6/n-3 ratio in breast meat compared to non-LO groups. | [167] | ||
Laying hen | 2.5% sunflower oil (control), 0.5, 1.0, or 1.5% punicic acid (CLnA) | Kostogrys et al. reported that the color of the eggs’ yolk was improved, while the hardness of hard-boiled egg yolks was not influenced. Dietary punicic acid incorporation resulted in an increase of CLnA and CLA levels in egg yolk. The Haugh units and pH values were similar between treatments. The egg albumen index was significantly higher in the 1% CLnA group. Feed consumption was the lowest in the 1.5% CLnA group. Egg yield increased in the CLnA groups. Eggs Shape Index of the CLnA was lower in the 0.5% CLnA group. SFA proportion increased, MUFA decreased in the experimental groups, while content and proportion of PUFA increased in the 0.5% CLnA and the lowest was observed in the 1.5% CLnA group. | [170] | |
Pomegranate and grape seed oil (GPO) | Broiler | 2% replacement of soybean oil (5% in the diet) | Banaszkiewicz et al. indicated that the source of oil did not influence the slaughter yield, basic nutrients, and physical characteristics of the breast and thigh muscles. PSO inclusion enhanced the palatability of thigh muscles. GPO reduces the saturated fatty acids (palmitic) in muscles. The GPO group exhibited the deposition of a small amount of punicic acid and increased rumenic acid. The sum of the n-6 fatty acids and the n-6/n-3 ratio increased in the GPO group compared to the control group. | [168] |
Tomato pomace (TP) | Broiler | 0, 5, 10, or 15% substitution of SBM | Ghazi and Drakhshan reported that feed intake, weight gain, and FCR were similar between the treatments. No significant differences were recorded for breast, abdominal fat, liver, and gizzard weight. | [177] |
0% TP (rearing under thermoneutral zone), 0, 3 or 5% TP (heat-stressed broilers) | Hosseini-Vashan et al. indicated that BW and production index were elevated, and FCR was reduced in the 5% TP group (1–28 d), while reduced serum triglycerides and higher HDL cholesterol concentration were recorded in 28 d. The activities of GPx and SOD were elevated, and the concentration of MDA decreased in the 5% TP group (28 d). The adverse effects of heat stress on immune response were alleviated in the 5% TP group. The ash and Ca contents of the tibia were not significantly different between thermoneutral and heat-stressed broilers fed on 5% TP. | [180] | ||
Grower chicks | 0, 5, 10, 15, or 20% | Yitbarek reported that TP groups recorded higher dry matter intake than the control group, and daily BW gain was highest in the 5% TP group. A significant difference in FCR was observed between the 5 and 20% TP groups. Economic efficiency was the highest in the 20% TP. | [179] | |
Laying hen | 0, 150, 170, or 190 g/kg | Salajegheh et al. found that BW, feed intake, egg production, FCR, egg weight, egg mass, eggshell weight, eggshell thickness, and Haugh unit were not affected by the dietary inclusion of TP. The yolk color score increased in the TP groups. Total serum protein, cholesterol, LDL, HDL, albumin, glucose, and triglyceride levels were not significantly different among treatments. | [186] | |
Tomato meal (TM) | Laying hen | 0, 80, or 150 g/kg | Yannakopoulos et al. indicated that body weight gain, egg number, feed consumption, mortality, eggshell quality, and egg shape index were not influenced in the experimental groups. The yolk color score was improved, and the number of blood and meat spots decreased in the TM groups. | [183] |
Tomato pulp (TPU) | Laying hen | Control (no additives), 28 g/ton carophyll, 40, 60, 80, or 120 g/kg TPU | Dotas et al. reported that egg production was not affected in the experimental groups, and food consumption, food efficiency, and egg weight were not different between the control and TPU groups. The number of broken eggs and the number of eggs without shells were not affected by dietary treatment. The yolk color was enhanced in the TPU groups, with the carophyll groups recording the same. | [182] |
0, 50, 100, or 150 kg/t | Jafari et al. reported that egg production and egg mass of hens (27–38 wk) were higher by the inclusion of up to 100 kg/t than the control, while final BW, egg weight, daily feed consumption, eggshell weight, eggshell thickness, Haugh units, and yolk color were similar to the control group. Conversely, lower egg production and egg mass, and increased feed efficiency were recorded in the 150 kg/t TPU group. | [176] | ||
Quail | 0, 5, 10% | Nikolakakis et al. reported that final BW, daily feed consumption, FCR, and carcass weight, yield, and composition were similar among treatments, while ether extract content was lower in both TPU groups. Thigh and breast skin coloring was darker in the TPU groups, with the 10% TPU group exhibiting the darkest color. Carcass coloring, the fatty acid profile of carcasses, total SFA, MUFA, and PUFA were not different among treatments. | [189] | |
0, 5, 10% | Botsoglou et al. indicated that MDA values in raw meat were higher after 6–9 d in the 10% TPU group and lower in the 5% TPU group. The oxidation profile of cooked meat was similar after 3, 6, and 9 d of storage among dietary treatments. MDA values of raw meat in the 5% TPU group were lower only at 100 and 150 min of iron-induced lipid oxidation. PUFA and USFA/SFA ratio (unsaturated fatty acids/SFA) was higher in the 10% TPU group. | [188] | ||
Tomato powder (TPO) | Laying hen | 0, 5, or 10 g/kg | Akdemir et al. indicated that feed intake, egg production, egg weight, and yolk color increased linearly, and feed conversion decreased linearly with increment dietary levels of TPO. Shell weight, shell thickness, and Haugh unit were not affected in the TPO groups. Concentrations of serum and egg yolk lycopene, β-carotene, lutein, and vitamin A were elevated in the TPO groups, while MDA decreased linearly with increasing levels of TPO in the diet. | [184] |
Quail | 0, 2.5, 5% | Sahin et al. reported that increasing dietary levels of TPO linearly increased feed intake, live weight gain, and feed conversion under heat stress conditions but not under thermoneutral conditions. Serum lycopene and vitamin C, E, and A concentrations linearly increased with increasing levels of TPO. MDA in serum, liver, and muscles linearly decreased with increasing levels of TPO in both heat-stressed and thermoneutral groups. | [190] | |
Tomato pulp powder (TPP) | Quail | 0, 2, 4, 6, 8% | Jouzi et al. reported that feed intake was similar between treatments, while BW and pre-slaughter weight was elevated in the 4% TPP group compared to the other groups. The feed coefficient was higher in the 6 and 8% TPP groups compared to the control. Wing weight was lower in the 2 and 4% TPP groups compared to the control. Breast, drumstick, and carcass yield, triglyceride, cholesterol, Zn, Cu, and Fe levels were reduced in the 2, 4, and 6% TPP groups. | [187] |
Tomato waste juice (TWJ) | Broiler | 0, 40, 80, 120 mL/d | Wahyuni et al. reported that the relative weight of the thymus, duodenum, jejunum, caecum, and liver was elevated in broilers (15–35 d) fed on TWJ. Cumulative feed intake, final BW, daily weight gain, and FCR were not affected by TWJ incorporation. | [181] |
Tomato waste (TW) | Broiler | 0, 5, 10, 15, or 20% | Lira et al. reported that feed intake was elevated during 1–7, 8–14, and 29–36 d, while gain weight and FCR deteriorated up to 29 d but not during 29–42 d. Carcass weight and weight of the noble parts, breast, drumstick, and thighs were reduced linearly with increasing TW levels (up to 28 d), while yield (%) was not affected except for heart and liver yields. | [178] |
Laying hen | 5% flaxseed and 2.5, 5.0, or 7.5% TW | Panaite et al. reported that average daily feed intake and laying percentage were reduced in the 5 and 7.5% TW groups in comparison with the control. Yolk Roche color score was improved in the TW groups due to the enrichment of yolk with carotenoids, but transfer efficiency from feed to egg was reduced. In 5 and 7.5% TW groups (4 wk), lutein and zeaxanthin levels of egg yolk were elevated, and the color score was 3.5-fold compared to the control. The n-3 fatty acid content of egg yolk increased from 3.1 to 3.7-fold due to flaxseed addition compared to the control group, while the n-6/n-3 ratio decreased from 18.3 in the control to 4.1–5.4 in the flaxseed-supplemented groups. | [185] | |
Sugar beet pulp | Broiler | 0, 30 g/kg oat hulls (OH) or SBP | Gonzalez-Alvarado et al. indicated that BW gain and feed-to-gain ratio were improved in the SBP diets compared to the control. Feed intake was reduced at 25–42 d, and the relative weight of the gastrointestinal tract and gizzard, the digesta content of the gizzard, and the total tract apparent digestibility of nutrients were improved in the SBP group. | [194] |
0, 25, 50, and 75 g/kg SBP or OH | Jimenez-Moreno et al. reported that feed intake or BW gain was not affected, while FCR was enhanced quadratically in the SBP and OH groups (1–18 d). Energy efficiency improved linearly in the SBP and OH groups (1–18 d). The coefficient of total tract apparent retention was improved by the incorporation of up to 50 g/kg SBP or OH. | [196] | ||
0, 25, 50, and 75 g of either OH or SBP | Jimenez-Moreno et al. reported that the relative weight of the gastrointestinal tract with digesta contents increased linearly with increasing levels of dietary fiber. The weight of the pancreas increased with increment levels of SBP, while the relative weight of the gizzard and its dry matter (DM) content was elevated, and gizzard pH was decreased in the experimental diets at all ages of broilers. Gizzards were heavier with higher DM content and gizzard pH in the OH group compared to the SBP one, while villus height (12 d) decreased in the SBP group. The pH of the digesta of the duodenum was elevated in the SBP and OH groups at 6 d and at 12 d in the SBP group. | [195] | ||
0%, 7.5% SBP, or 15% potato peel, with or without enzyme | Abdel-Hafeez et al. reported that the SBP or potato peel inclusion decreased BW, while feed intake, weight gain, and feed conversion were lower in the SBP group but were not different in the potato peel group compared to the control. Enzyme addition increased BW, feed intake, and feed conversion. The total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol serum levels, and carcass fat content were lower in the experimental groups, while carcass yield was not different. At the same time, SBP addition at greater levels (7.5%) decreased BW, weight gain, LDL, and total cholesterol serum levels. | [198] | ||
0%, 7.5% SBP, or 15% potato peel, with or without enzyme | Abdel-Daim et al. indicated that the digestibility of ether extract, crude fiber, or crude protein, physicochemical and sensory characteristics of the breast or thigh muscles, and intestinal morphology during starter and growing periods were not affected in the experimental groups. Villus height and villus height/crypt depth ratio decreased during the starting period but not in the grower period. Enzyme addition increased the digestibility of nutrients, enhanced the development of the small intestine, increased the crude protein content and the water-holding capacity, and reduced the ether extract of the meat and the cooking loss rate. | [197] | ||
23, 46, and 92 g/kg | Petterson and Razdan reported that the ileal digestibilities of organic matter, crude fat, and crude protein were reduced with increasing dietary levels of SBP. Total serum cholesterol levels decreased in the SBP groups. High triacylglycerol and total serum cholesterol concentrations of the restricted level-fed chickens exhibited a meal frequency factor. Growth performance was improved in the SBP groups, but with no statistical differences. | [199] | ||
Laying hen | 0, 3, 5, 7% | Selim and Hussein reported that feed intake, egg production, egg weight and mass, and improved FCR, yolk color core, and Haugh unit linearly increased with SBP addition. Higher protein and lower ether extract in eggs of the SBP groups were observed, while serum total lipids, cholesterol, alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, and creatinine decreased. Egg yolk MDA, cholesterol, and triglyceride linearly decreased, and GPx increased with SBP dietary inclusion. | [201] | |
Quail | 0, 20, 40 g/kg and multi-enzyme 0, 1, or 2 g/kg | Alagawany and Attia reported that feed consumption, FCR, egg number, egg weight, egg mass, external and internal egg quality, N consumption, N in egg, N excretion, N fecal, N intake, and N retention were not affected by SBP inclusion. Increasing levels of SBP reduced final BW and fertility percentage. Hatchability percentages from fertile eggs increased with decreasing levels of SBP. Digestion coefficients of the nutrients excluding the N digestibility were significantly affected by SBP addition. | [191] | |
Sugar beet meal | Broiler | Control, 2.5% sugar beet meal, 2.5% neem leaf meal, 2.5% linseed meal, or 2.5% coriander seed meal | Kumari et al. reported enhanced BW, weight gain, feed conversion rate, performance index, and giblet relative weight in the sugar beet meal-fed group. | [193] |
Aqueous methanolic extract of sugar beet | Broiler | 100, 200, and 300 mg/kg BW, vitamin E 87 mg/kg, Baycox® 1 mL/L of water, PBS group (infected non medicated control group). Group served as non-infected, non-medicated group | Abbas et al. indicated that sugar beet exhibited good anticoccidial activity, which was evaluated based on the improvement of FCR, lesion score, oocyst score, and oocysts per g of feces. The serum profile of infected broilers was not significantly different by the inclusion of the sugar beet extract. | [200] |
Brewers dried grains (BDG) | Broiler | Substitution of maize with 0, 25, 50, 75, or 100% BDG | Ironkwe and Bamgbose reported that the 50% BDG group exhibited the highest final live weight, daily weight gains, and the lowest FCR, followed by the 25, 75, and 100% BDG groups, with the lowest. Feed intake was the highest in the control group (0% BDG) and the lowest in the 100% BDG group, while cost per kg feed was the lowest in the latter group, which decreased with increasing BDG participation in the diet. Cost per kg weight gain decreased with increasing BDG levels. | [205] |
0, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, or 40% BDG and sand 0 or 4% | Onwudike indicated that sand incorporation in diets improved digestibility, gain, and FCR, while the inclusion of higher than 15% to 20% BDG decreased feed conversion efficiency. At levels of 0, 15, 20, 25, and 30% BDG and 4% sand inclusion in the diet, no positive effects were observed in grower diets. | [206] | ||
Brewers spent grains (BSG) | Broiler | Group I (whole BSG without xylanase), group II (whole BSG and xylanase top-dressed), group III (whole BSG and xylanase pre-treated), group IV (ground BSG without xylanase), group V (ground BSG and xylanase top-dressed), group VI (ground BSG and xylanase pre-treated) | Denstadli et al. reported that weight gain was not different among treatments, but feed intake increased by the xylanase supplementation and by the addition of coarse BSG. Feeding coarse BSG rather than ground BSG had a better effect on feed utilization, but no effect on ileal digestibility or apparent metabolizable energy was observed. Gizzard weight was elevated in the coarse-BSG groups compared to the ground-BSG groups. Jejunal viscosity decreased due to the enzyme supplementation in the diet. Higher concentrations of arabinose and xylose in caeca in the pre-treated diets compared with the untreated or top-dressed diets were observed. Enzyme supplementation in diets affected the caecal contents of rhamnose and mannose. Elevated ileal concentrations of mannose and glucose in groups fed on pre-treated diets compared with groups fed on top-dressed diets were recorded. | [208] |
Fermented brewers spent grains, mineral sorbing complex, and probiotics | Quail | 0 or 1.5% | Yurina et al. reported that an additive consisting of fermented brewers spent grains, mineral sorbing complex, and probiotics increased gross egg production by 3.8%, intensity of egg production by 2.3%, the intensity of egg production by 2.3%, decreased feed consumption for the production of 1 dozen eggs by 5.5%, and increased FCR in comparison with the control group. Livability (90%) of quails was not affected among the treatments. | [207] |
Agro-Industrial By-Product | Potential Hazards | References |
---|---|---|
Apple by-products | Amygdalin, pesticides (e.g., neonicotinoids and arsenic-based pesticides), patulin | [232] |
Citrus pulp | PCBs and PCDD/Fs 1, ochratoxin A, pesticides (e.g., imidacloprid, abamectin, cypermethrin, and prochloraz | [218,225,233,234,235] |
Sunflower meal | Alternariol, alternariol monomethyl ether and tenuazonic acid (Alternaria spp. toxins), Fusarium spp. toxins, aflatoxin B1, heavy metals (e.g., Pb, Cd, Cr, As, Hg, Ni) | [236,237] |
Wheat dried distillers’ grain with solubles | Deoxynivalenol, enniatin B, ochratoxin, antibiotics Co-occurrence of deoxynivalenol with its acetylated and/or glycosylated derivatives, and DON with enniatins, beauvericin or zearalenone | [83,216,218,238,239,240] |
Corn dried distillers’ grain with solubles | Aflatoxins (e.g., AFB1), deoxynivalenol, fumonisins, T-2 toxin, zearalenone, ochratoxin | [82,83,221] |
Grape pomace | Heavy metals (e.g., Al, As, Pb, Cd, and Ni), toxins (e.g., ochratoxin A, biogenic amines) | [104,241] |
Sugar beet pulp | Heavy metals (e.g., Al, As, Pb, Cd, and Ni) | [222] |
Sugar beet pulp silage | ochratoxin A, zearalenone, mycophenolic acid and roquefortine C | |
Brewery by-products | Aflatoxins (e.g., AFB1), ochratoxin A, fumonisin B1, acetyl-deoxynivalenols (ADONs), deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside (DON-3-Glc), HT-2, enniatins, patulin and gliotoxin, pesticides | [83,220,242] |
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Georganas, A.; Giamouri, E.; Pappas, A.C.; Zoidis, E.; Goliomytis, M.; Simitzis, P. Utilization of Agro-Industrial By-Products for Sustainable Poultry Production. Sustainability 2023, 15, 3679. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15043679
Georganas A, Giamouri E, Pappas AC, Zoidis E, Goliomytis M, Simitzis P. Utilization of Agro-Industrial By-Products for Sustainable Poultry Production. Sustainability. 2023; 15(4):3679. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15043679
Chicago/Turabian StyleGeorganas, Alexandros, Elisavet Giamouri, Athanasios C. Pappas, Evangelos Zoidis, Michael Goliomytis, and Panagiotis Simitzis. 2023. "Utilization of Agro-Industrial By-Products for Sustainable Poultry Production" Sustainability 15, no. 4: 3679. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15043679
APA StyleGeorganas, A., Giamouri, E., Pappas, A. C., Zoidis, E., Goliomytis, M., & Simitzis, P. (2023). Utilization of Agro-Industrial By-Products for Sustainable Poultry Production. Sustainability, 15(4), 3679. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15043679