Heavy Metal and Metalloid Contamination in Food and Emerging Technologies for Its Detection
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Metals in Food Toxicity
2.1. Cadmium (Cd) Toxicity
2.2. Lead (Pb) Toxicity
2.3. Mercury (Hg) Toxicity
2.4. Tin (Sn) Toxicity
2.5. Manganese (Mn) Toxicity
2.6. Aluminum (Al) Toxicity
2.7. Chromium (Cr) Toxicity
2.8. Iron (Fe) Toxicity
2.9. Nickel (Ni)Toxicity
Metal | Sources | Recommendation of Intake | Side Effects | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Cadmium (Cd) | staple food, rice, and several specific foods, such as animal kidneys, blood cockle, and local vegetables | The European Food Safety Authority’s (EFSA) panel on contaminants in the food chain recommended in 2009 that the PTWI be lowered to the tolerable weekly intake (TWI) level of 2.5 μg/kg body weight. | Kidney disease, osteoporosis, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and cancer | [21] |
Lead (Pb) | wind, consumption of Pb-contaminated soils, oral intake of Pb-contaminated water, and consumption of food cultivated in Pb-contaminated areas | The WHO and the FAO have approved daily Pb intakes of up to 7 µg/kg body weight or 490 µg of Pb for adults. | liver, kidneys, and bone tissue | [32,33] |
Mercury (Hg) | ingestion of fish, whale sharks, sailfish, marlin, other billfish, and mercury amalgams | - | impaired motor skills, fatigue, anxiety, skin rashes, memory loss, difficulty hearing, difficulty speaking, difficulty seeing, Minamata disease, and acrodynia | [42,43] |
Tin (Sn) | Cans for drinks are commonly made from tinplate. Over fifteen billion internally lacquered tinplate beverage cans are made and used annually in Europe | Maximum allowable levels of Sn in food are usually 250 mg/kg (200 mg/kg in the UK) for solid foods and 150 mg/kg (2.5 mmol/L) for beverages, with a PTWI of 14 mg/kg body weight. | unfavorable gastrointestinal effects | [47,48,49,50] |
Manganese (Mn) | foods, with some vegans consuming >10 mg daily | Recommended intake of Mn is 1.8 (women) or 2.3 (men) mg/d, while the upper limit is 11 mg/d, according to the National Academy of Sciences. | Parkinson’s disease, with tremors and facial muscle problems | [64] |
Aluminum (Al) | Corn, yellow cheese, salt, herbs, spices, tea, and tap water | Al intake should be kept below 1 milligram per kilogram of body weight per week, as determined by the European Food Safety Authority. Food Additives reported in 1989 that the average daily intake of aluminum for children is 2–6 mg/kg, and for adults, 6–14 mg/kg. Al has a PTWI value of 7 mg/kg. | pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease, impaired skeletal system, reduced collagen synthesis, slowed-down mineralization, weakening resistance, and a propensity toward breaking | [77] |
Chromium (Cr) | canned and other processed foods, brown sugar, and molasses | Dietary intake above 25 µg (0.5 µmol)/d for adults and between 0.1 and 1.0 µg/kg/d (2 and 19 nmol/k/d) for children and adolescents are considered safe and appropriate. However, the Panel has not established reference nutrient intakes (RNI) for Cr compounds. | carcinogenic, corrosive, and delayed contact sensitizers | [98,99] |
Iron (Fe) | lowland rice | A safe upper threshold of 25–50 mg Fe/day can be calculated by applying a safety factor of 2 to prevent this common iron toxicity endpoint. | stomach upset, primary and secondary hemochromatosis, hepatic fibrosis, diabetes, and heart failure | [104] |
Nickel (Ni) | marine fish and plants watered with untreated sewage | Consumption of 325 mg causes vomiting, dizziness, and a slowing heart rate. | respiratory and digestive damage, cerebral edema, or diffuse interstitial pneumonitis | [107,108,109] |
3. Metalloids in Food Toxicity
3.1. Arsenic (As) Toxicity
3.2. Antimony (Sb) Toxicity
3.3. Selenium (Se) Toxicity
4. Detection of Heavy Metal and Metalloid Contaminants in Food Toxicity
4.1. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS)
4.2. Spectrofluorimetry
4.3. Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS)
4.4. Liquid Chromatography–Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (LC–ICP-MS)
4.5. E-Tongues
4.6. Electrochemical Aptasensors
4.7. Raman Spectroscopy
4.8. Fluorescence Sensors
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement:
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Mukherjee, A.G.; Renu, K.; Gopalakrishnan, A.V.; Veeraraghavan, V.P.; Vinayagam, S.; Paz-Montelongo, S.; Dey, A.; Vellingiri, B.; George, A.; Madhyastha, H.; et al. Heavy Metal and Metalloid Contamination in Food and Emerging Technologies for Its Detection. Sustainability 2023, 15, 1195. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021195
Mukherjee AG, Renu K, Gopalakrishnan AV, Veeraraghavan VP, Vinayagam S, Paz-Montelongo S, Dey A, Vellingiri B, George A, Madhyastha H, et al. Heavy Metal and Metalloid Contamination in Food and Emerging Technologies for Its Detection. Sustainability. 2023; 15(2):1195. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021195
Chicago/Turabian StyleMukherjee, Anirban Goutam, Kaviyarasi Renu, Abilash Valsala Gopalakrishnan, Vishnu Priya Veeraraghavan, Sathishkumar Vinayagam, Soraya Paz-Montelongo, Abhijit Dey, Balachandar Vellingiri, Alex George, Harishkumar Madhyastha, and et al. 2023. "Heavy Metal and Metalloid Contamination in Food and Emerging Technologies for Its Detection" Sustainability 15, no. 2: 1195. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021195