MaaS Implications in the Smart City: A Multi-Stakeholder Approach
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Research Background: Revising the SC and MaaS
2.1. The SC Dimensions and Their “Areas of Action”
2.2. MaaS as a Smart Mobility Strategy
2.2.1. The MaaS Ecosystem: Identification of Key Actors
MaaS Actors | [65] | [64] | [22] | [31] | [66] | [67] | [34] | [26] | [68] | [69] | [32] | [70] | [30] | [71] | [72] | [73] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
End users (travellers) | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ |
Academia and research institutions * | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | |||||||
Automotive companies * | √ | √ | ||||||||||||||
Energy companies * | √ | √ | ||||||||||||||
Financing/funding companies * | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | ||||||||
Firms offering ticketing/payment solutions * | √ | √ | √ | |||||||||||||
Insurance companies * | √ | √ | √ | |||||||||||||
IT developers and data companies * | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | ||
MaaS provider * | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | ||||||
Media and marketing firms * | √ | √ | √ | √ | ||||||||||||
Passenger associations * | √ | √ | ||||||||||||||
Transport consulting companies * | √ | √ | ||||||||||||||
Transport operators (public and private) * | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ |
Unions * | √ | √ | ||||||||||||||
Urban authorities (government) * | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | |||||
Vehicle manufacturers * | √ | √ | ||||||||||||||
Local civic organisations * | √ |
2.2.2. MaaS and the SC Dimensions
3. Methodological Approach: Semi-Structured Interviews in Madrid (Spain)
3.1. Description of the Research Location: Madrid (Spain)
3.2. Application of the Methodology: Semi-Structured Interviews
3.2.1. Selection of Participants and Recruitment Strategy
3.2.2. Semi-Structured Interviews Procedure
3.2.3. Data Analysis
4. Findings: Implications of MaaS Implementation in the Context of the SC
4.1. MaaS and Smart Governance
“…MaaS integrates all modes of transport and their tickets. This integration is not a technical challenge, but an organisational and legal one…//Who can sell each ticket?//… the regulatory framework should be re-defined to avoid the intrusion of competences between the different mobility service providers…”.—Public transport operator.
“MaaS actors need to establish effective mechanisms for sharing data…//Sharing data does not mean freely exchanging all available data…”.—Private transport operator.
“…instead of spending on advertising campaigns, urban authorities can take advantage of MaaS platforms to raise awareness on issues that the public needs to know about. They can also use them to explore citizens’ perspective and get their feedback on regulations, initiatives...”.—Academic.
4.2. MaaS and Smart Economy
“Driven by digitalisation, MaaS has the potential to stimulate the emergence of new services and products that respond to the desires of individual travellers…//This scenario of innovation fosters entrepreneurship and creativity, bringing new opportunities for the city and its inhabitants…”.—Urban authority.
“…the regulatory framework should ensure a fair scenario of cooperation and competition for service providers. In this sense, the review of tax policies can provide an opportunity to bridge the gap between the public and private sectors”.—Academic.
“Today, tax policies act as a barrier to the deployment of innovative mobility solutions (such as MaaS), as they are still on the process of being reconciled with the concept of servitisation…//…it seems key to rapidly adjust these policies to ensure a balanced scenario that promotes fair conditions for the different actors”.—Private transport operator.
“…traditional measures, such as congestion pricing, access restrictions, and parking and traffic control, remain at the forefront of options to tackle car use. However, they do not seem sufficient in the new mobility scenario, which calls for alternative or even additional approaches to tax the negative externalities of our travel behaviours and to avoid the trend towards a growing disregard for environmental degradation…//…MaaS is based on a digital platform that can set prices according to time of day, location, modal efficiency, etc. One possibility would be to associate this pricing scheme with the achievement of sustainability goals, including taxes that penalise the abusive occupation of road space, inappropriate travel behaviours, etc. For example, a surcharge could be imposed on zero-occupancy vehicles to discourage this type of travel conduct…”.—Academic.
4.3. MaaS and Smart Mobility
“…close collaboration between the public and private sectors can help to address service limitations. On the other hand, lack of cooperation could lead to inefficiency and uncertainty in the network…”.—Academic.
“…MaaS requires a (regulatory) entity to ensure collaboration between the public and private sectors…//…but who should this entity be? Public actors (particularly public transport operators) are best positioned from a social perspective but may lack resources. On the other, private actors would have more incentive to create profit and innovative services but less incentive to fulfil societal goals…”.—Academic.
“…in digital solutions such as MaaS, it is key to ensure both data quality and security…//…from the end-user perspective, there is a risk that personal and payment information could be accessed by malicious entities. This could lead to issues relating to personal or financial security...//…for mobility services providers, there are concerns that intellectual property could be breached, and the business could lose its competitive advantage…”.—IT developer.
4.4. MaaS and Smart Environment
“…the integration of personalised persuasive strategies—that respond to each individuals’ expectations and desires—are key to effectively enhance a behavioural shift towards more sustainable choices”.—Academic.
“MaaS technologies should monitor travellers’ behaviours: modal share, travel time and distance, origin and destination of trips, etc. This will make it possible to define different persuadability profiles. Based on them, MaaS can generate personalized strategies that nudge each individual to adopt more sustainable travel habits, while improving his/her experience”.—Academic.
“…MaaS provides the opportunity to recognise different users’ profiles based on their individual characteristics and travel behaviour. This information can help to define personalised recommendations to make travellers aware of the environmental impacts of their choices...”—Academic.
“…personalised daily, weekly, or monthly reminders can encourage individuals to use MaaS in order to, for example, improve their physical activity. As well as to keep them motivated when they are struggling to reach their physical activity goals...”.—Academic.
“MaaS could propose personal (individual) or collaborative (collective) challenges to persuade users to reduce the emissions caused by their mobility choices”.—Academic.
“…MaaS could promote greener alternatives through visual stimuli—for example, displaying colour changes in the background graphics of end-users’ smartphones—when making sustainable choices such as reducing driving, adopting active modes, etc.”.—IT developer.
4.5. MaaS and Smart People
“…MaaS is driven by the global trend of servitisation and its success is linked to the transition from a “modal-centric” to a “user-centric” mobility model, where individuals have to change their behaviours and overcome the traditional culture of private vehicle hegemony…”.—Academic.
“…the reliance of MaaS on digitalisation might exclude certain social groups with difficulties in handling new technologies. For example, there is evidence that older age cohorts are not entirely comfortable with the use of applications on smartphones, and often have anxieties about online transactions…”.—Transport operator (private).
4.6. MaaS and Smart Living
“…we need to prepare our cities for the arrival of MaaS: public space must be ready to accommodate the dynamic changes associated with these innovative solutions…”.—Academic.
“…an example of physical integration is to provide parking spaces or bike rental points at public transport stations (bus stations or train stations). This can encourage multimodal behaviours…”.—Urban authority.
“…the success of MaaS partly depends on the physical integration of modes, routes, and schedules…//…route integration refers to the implementation of transfer points at strategic locations that ensure sufficient coverage of the network...//…schedule integration refers to the harmonisation of the schedules of all mobility services so that connections between modes can be made on time and with minimal waiting-time…”.—Academic.
“…the success of MaaS will lead to fewer cars on the road, with much less demand for parking, freeing up space in cities for pedestrians and cyclists…”.—Academic.
“…the implementation of new mobility services must be supported by a regulatory framework in order to avoid negative impacts…//…for example, a maximum number of vehicles per operator could be established in order to control the use of public space…”.—Academic.
“…the implementation of micro-mobility services (such as scooters) should be guided by clear rules on where and how these vehicles could be used to prevent conflicts over the use of public space, in particular the use of pavements…”.—Academic.
5. Discussion
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A. Guide Followed in the Semi-Structured Interviews
- Name and surname;
- Age;
- Gender;
- Work status;
- Frequency of use of travel-planning applications;
- Daily transport habits (most frequent mode of transport);
- Use of emerging mobility services, such as shared-mobility, micro-mobility, car-pooling, and ride-hailing services.
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“Areas of Action” | Literature References | ||
---|---|---|---|
Smart Governance (SG) | SG.1 | Participation and collaboration | [3,20,38,39,41,43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59] |
SG.2 | Legislative and regulatory framework | [3,20,38,39,41,43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,60,61,62] | |
SG.3 | Transparency and access to information | [3,20,38,39,41,43,44,46,47,48,49,50,51,53,54,55,56,57,60,61,62,63] | |
SG.4 | Public and social services | [9,20,38,39,41,42,44,45,49,50,51,54,56] | |
SG.5 | Efficiency in (government) management | [3,20,38,39,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,57,58,61,62,63] | |
SG.6 | Multi-level governance: structure and organisation | [3,20,38,39,41,43,44,45,47,49,53,54,55,57,58,59] | |
SG.7 | Digitalisation (i.e., digital capacity) | [3,39,41,44,45,46,49,50,51,53,54,55,57,58,59,61,62,63] | |
Smart Economy (SC) | SC.1 | Business innovation: flexibility and creativity | [3,20,38,43,44,45,48,49,50,51,54,55,57,58,59,60,63] |
SC.2 | Financing: funding and investment | [3,9,20,38,39,41,44,45,47,48,49,50,53,54,55,56,58,61] | |
SC.3 | Taxation | [20,38,43,44,53,55,61] | |
SC.4 | Entrepreneurship | [38,43,50,51,55] | |
SC.5 | Digitalisation: local and global interconnectedness | [9,38,39,44,47] | |
SC.6 | Efficient management for sustainable productivity | [20,38,39,43,44,48,50,51,54,56] | |
SC.7 | Circular economy | [43] | |
Smart Mobility (SM) | SM.1 | Monitoring and management of the mobility network | [3,9,20,38,39,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,63] |
SM.2 | Multimodality: integrated network of public transport and new mobility services | [3,9,20,38,39,41,42,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,63] | |
SM.3 | Digital and physical infrastructure | [3,9,20,38,39,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,62,63] | |
SM.4 | Logistics | [20,42,43,44,45,48,49,50,54,56,61] | |
SM.5 | Accessibility | [9,20,38,39,41,45,48,49,51,56,57,58,59,61,63] | |
SM.6 | App-based (on-demand) mobility services | [3,20,38,39,41,42,43,45,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,58,59,60,61,62,63] | |
SM.7 | Clean and non-motorised options | [3,9,20,38,39,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,58,59,60,61,62,63] | |
SM.8 | Autonomous and connected vehicles | [3,41,46,55,56,58,59,63] | |
Smart Environment (SE) | SE.1 | Environmental monitoring and protection | [3,9,20,38,39,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,62,63] |
SE.2 | Efficient management of the network for reducing environmental impacts | [3,9,20,42,43,44,46,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,62,63] | |
SE.3 | Energy efficiency | [3,48,53,59,60,61,63] | |
SE.4 | Sustainable and adaptive urban planning | [3,9,38,39,41,42,43,44,45,47,48,49,50,51,55,56,58,61,62,63] | |
SE.5 | Sustainable resources management | [3,43,44,46,50,54,56,61] | |
Smart People (SP) | SP.1 | Digital education and learning | [3,20,38,39,41,42,43,44,46,47,48,49,50,51,53,54,56,58,59,61,62] |
SP.2 | Creative skills development | [3,9,20,38,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,53,54,56,58,59,61,62] | |
SP.3 | Social inclusion and equity | [3,20,38,39,41,43,44,45,48,51,54,55,56,57,60,61,63] | |
SP.4 | Awareness raising and behavioural change | [3,20,38,39,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,62] | |
SP.5 | Community building: participation in public life | [3,20,39,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,62] | |
Smart Living (SL) | SL.1 | Connectivity and accessibility | [3,9,20,38,39,41,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,53,54,55,56,57,59,60,61,62,63] |
SL.2 | Security and privacy | [3,41,43,44,46,47,48,49,56,57,60] | |
SL.3 | Safety | [3,9,20,38,39,41,42,44,46,47,48,51,52,54,55,56,59,60,61,62,63] | |
SL.4 | Resilience | [44,63] | |
SL.5 | Social welfare (i.e., liveability) and public value | [9,20,38,39,42,44,45,46,47,48,50,51,52,54,55,56,58,59,60,61,62] | |
SL.6 | Public space design (user-centred) | [52,62] | |
SL.7 | Flexibility and convenience (lifestyle) | [3,20,38,39,45,47,48,53,54,55,57,59,60,62,63] | |
SL.8 | Health and quality of life | [20,38,39,44,48,49,50,51,52,53,56,58,60,61,62,63] |
MaaS Stakeholders | Individuals Contacted (n) | Individuals Interviewed (n) |
---|---|---|
Academic and research institutions | 6 urban mobility planners | 6 |
6 urban planners | 6 | |
IT developers and data companies | 12 entities | 6 1 |
Transport operators | 2 public transport operators | 2 |
10 private transport operators | 10 2 | |
Urban authorities | 5 central government authorities | 5 |
5 local municipality authorities | 5 | |
2 public transport authorities 3 | 2 |
Smart Governance (SG) Implications | SC “Areas of Action” (Section 2.1) | |
---|---|---|
IG1 | Define a new regulatory framework based on innovation. | SG1, SG2, SG6, SG7, SP5 |
IG2 | Define new governmental levels (i.e., new roles) with new commitments and responsibilities within the MaaS ecosystem | SG1, SG5, SG6, SC4, SP2, SP5 |
IG3 | Define an interconnected network of governmental levels (multi-level network) for a collaborative production of services related to MaaS. | SG1, SG3, SG4, SG5, SG6, SG7, SC1, SC4, SM2, SP2, SP5 |
IG4 | Define an integrated network of governmental levels to ensure seamless and efficient management of MaaS. | SG1, SG3, SG4, SG5, SG6, SG7, SC1, SC4, SM1 |
IG5 | Design an open-government model that simultaneously guarantees transparency and security. | SG1, SG2, SG3, SG6, SG7, SM1, SM3, SP1, SP5, SL1, SL2 |
IG6 | Provide innovative channels (based on digitalisation) to facilitate communication between stakeholders and citizens. | SG1, SG3, SG7, SM3, SP1, SP2, SP5, SL1, SL2 |
Smart Economy (SC) Implications | SC “Areas of Action” (Section 2.1) | |
IC1 | Design new business models based on innovation: MaaS mobility bundles or packages. | SG1, SG2, SG6, SC1, SC2, SC3, SC4, SM2, SM3, SP2 |
IC2 | Define new business roles based on innovation. | SG1, SG6, SC1, SC4, SP2 |
IC3 | Explore new market niches and customer segments in relation to MaaS. | SC1, SC4, SC5, SP2, SP4 |
IC4 | Ensure entrepreneurial environments that facilitate accessibility to the labour market. | SG1, SG2, SC1, SC4, SP1, SP2, SL1, SL5 |
IC5 | Define a new taxation framework based on innovation. | SG2, SC1, SC3, |
Smart Mobility (SM) Implications | SC “Areas of Action” (Section 2.1) | |
IM1 | Design a multimodal mobility network that integrates all mobility services (public transport, shared mobility, parking, etc.) to provide door-to-door solutions. | SG1, SG2, SG6, SM2, SM3, SM5, SM6, SE2, SP4, SL7 |
IM2 | Promote less car-oriented lifestyles in favour of alternative mobility options. | SM2, SM7, SE1, SE2, SP4, SL1 |
IM3 | Facilitate smart management of the urban mobility network through real-time data. | SG2, SG3, SG7, SM1, SM2, SM3, SP1, SP4, SL1, SL2 |
IM4 | Ensure data quality, accuracy, and reliability through mobility applications (travel planners, parking applications, etc.). | SG2, SG3, SG5, SG7, SM2, SM3, SM6, SE1, SP1, SL1, SL2 |
IM5 | Ensure data security as travellers become data sources. | SG2, SG3, SG5, SG7, SM2, SM3, SM6, SE1, SP1, SP5, SL1, SL2 |
IM6 | Implement integrated e-ticketing and payment systems across all mobility services through a single digital interface. | SG2, SG3, SG5, SG7, SC1, SM2, SM3, SM6, SE1, SP1, SL1, SL2 |
IM7 | Ensure data communication between mobility service providers: standardisation of data formats and APIs. | SG1, SG2, SG3, SG5, SG7, SC1, SM2, SM3, SE1, SP1, SL1, SL2 |
Smart Environment (SE) Implications | SC “Areas of Action” (Section 2.1) | |
IE1 | Ensure sustainable travel behaviours (reduce car dependence) to mitigate negative externalities (pollution, congestion, etc.). | SM2, SM7, SE1, SP1, SP2, SP4, SL8 |
IE2 | Incorporate awareness-raising strategies in MaaS to encourage more environmentally friendly and active travel choices. | SM3, SM7, SE1, SE2, SP1, SP2, SP4, SL8 |
IE3 | Include environmental monitoring services in MaaS applications. | SG5, SM3, SE1, SP4, SL8 |
IE4 | Define sustainable urban planning strategies aligned with transport planning (reduction in parking spaces, design of multimodal urban hubs, etc.) | SG2, SM3, SE1, SE4, SL6, SL8 |
IE5 | Promote energy efficiency within the transport sector (new fuels, electrification, carbon neutrality, etc.) | SG2, SM3, SM7, SE1, SE3, SP3, SL5, SL8 |
Smart People (SP) Implications | SC “Areas of Action” (Section 2.1) | |
IP1 | Ensure informed mobility choices for end users to promote sustainability. | SG1, SG3, SM2, SM7, SP1, SP4, SL1, SL2, SL5, SL8 |
IP2 | Ensure the design of attractive and user-friendly platforms. | SG7, SM3, SM6, SP1, SP2, SP4, SL1, SL2 |
IP3 | Promote a behavioural transition from “owning” to “using”, i.e., overcome the culture of private vehicle travel. | SC1, SM6, SM7, SP1, SP4, SL7 |
IP4 | Ensure an appropriate degree of equity and non-discrimination in access to smart mobility services for certain groups (elderly people, low-income individuals, etc.) | SG2, SG4, SM5, SP3, SP5, SL3, SL5, SL7 |
IP5 | Promote public participation strategies in which end users take an active part in the design and development process of MaaS. | SG1, SG3, SC4, SP2, SP5, SL5 |
Smart Living (SL) Implications | SC “Areas of Action” (Section 2.1) | |
IL 1 | Guarantee personal safety. | SG2, SM2. SM3, SE4, SL3, SL8 |
IL 2 | Guarantee physical and digital accessibility to MaaS services. | SG2, SG3, SM2. SM3, SM5, SE4, SL1, SL2, SL8 |
IL 3 | Adapt the public space to MaaS services and other innovative initiatives. | SG2, SC4, SM3, SE4, SL5, SL6 |
IL 4 | Ensure personal privacy and security in a framework of free-flow data. | SG2, SG3, SG7, SM3, SP1, SL1, SL2 |
IL 5 | Ensure the affordability of MaaS services. | SG4, SC1, SC2, SC3, SP3 |
IL 6 | Ensure the generation of public value from individual choices. | SG1, SC4, SP2, SP5, SL5 |
IL7 | Enhance communication procedures in a hyper-connected scenario. | SG1, SG3, SG7, SM3, SP1, SP2, SP5, SL1, SL2 |
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Lopez-Carreiro, I.; Monzon, A.; Lopez, E. MaaS Implications in the Smart City: A Multi-Stakeholder Approach. Sustainability 2023, 15, 10832. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151410832
Lopez-Carreiro I, Monzon A, Lopez E. MaaS Implications in the Smart City: A Multi-Stakeholder Approach. Sustainability. 2023; 15(14):10832. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151410832
Chicago/Turabian StyleLopez-Carreiro, Iria, Andres Monzon, and Elena Lopez. 2023. "MaaS Implications in the Smart City: A Multi-Stakeholder Approach" Sustainability 15, no. 14: 10832. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151410832
APA StyleLopez-Carreiro, I., Monzon, A., & Lopez, E. (2023). MaaS Implications in the Smart City: A Multi-Stakeholder Approach. Sustainability, 15(14), 10832. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151410832