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Article

Potential Solutions for the Water Shortage Using Towers of Fog Collectors in a High Andean Community in Central Ecuador

by
David Vinicio Carrera-Villacrés
,
Fabián Rodríguez-Espinosa
and
Theofilos Toulkeridis
*
Departamento de Ciencias de la Tierra y Construcción, Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE, Sangolquí P.O. Box 171-5-231B, Ecuador
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2023, 15(12), 9237; https://doi.org/10.3390/su15129237
Submission received: 21 September 2022 / Revised: 30 March 2023 / Accepted: 11 April 2023 / Published: 7 June 2023
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Abstract

:
The lack of water is a fundamental issue for survival of peasant communities located at heights above 3200 masl in the Andean highlands, such as in the case of the Galte-Yaguachi community in central Ecuador. The social balance, agricultural development as well as animal subsistence and finally the economic income is pending on the availability of hydric resources. Therefore, a three-dimensional fog collector system was constructed with Urku Yaku material in order to provide water for the close-by community. Simultaneously, we determined the quality of the collected water per square meter of the mesh, during the period of the highest annual precipitations. The installed nets yielded a gain of at least 2.63 L/m2 and a minimum of 0.65 L/m2 per day. The analyzed water quality reflected the suitability for human consumption. As water collection has been successful, an expansion of the proposed system may provide this fundamental good also to other communities with similar characteristics. Fog catcher towers will produce 26,577.84 m3/year of water, fulfilling crops’ needs, and the economic analysis proves it is worth the investment, as demonstrated by a benefit cost ratio of 1.90.

1. Introduction

The spatial and temporal distribution of the world’s freshwater resources demonstrate a huge lack experienced by many regions worldwide, due to a variety of complex environmental and social interactions, such as changing geography, climate change, migration of population as well as modified water supply and use [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8]. Projections towards the future accessibility of available water resources estimate that by 2025 some 60% of world’s population will be living under water stress, using only 20% of the available resources, of which some ∼800 million will lack access to safe drinking water [5,9,10,11]. The regions which struggle most for fresh water access are developing countries and arid regions, countries which face problems such as erosion, deforestation and other forms of land degradation [12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19], but in recent years also industrialized countries, due to improper land use, faulty waste disposal, releases of industrial pollutants, fertilizer runoff and supra-salinity in coastal regions [20,21,22,23].
Therefore, it has been a priority to search for new and modern supply systems such as the construction of massive infrastructure in the form of pipelines, dams, aqueducts and treatment plants, as well as further new technologies and applications in order to provide the needed water volumes for arid or relatively dry sites, which have been traditionally ignored or isolated from central water supply systems [24,25,26,27,28]. In this respect, one of the new applications to increase the fresh water supply has been based on the catchment of water by the presence of fog in elevated mountainous regions [29,30,31,32,33,34]. The fog-water catcher technique has been originally developed by the Inca Empire, where buckets were placed under trees, allowing them obtain water from the moisture-laden fog along the Peruvian coast, which is characterized by extremely low rainfall [35]. In recent times, new ways and technologies to collect water from fogs have been developed and applied in a variety of countries including the Andean region [34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54].
In the Andean Ecuador, a recent pilot project started implementing a fog-catcher collector system in the peasant communities of Yaguachi and Galte. Due to the fact that this area still struggles daily with water deficit, we established the installation of a new and even more efficient three-dimensional fog-catcher system with low-cost material based on the “Urku Yaku Wachariy” principle, the birth of water in the Páramo, an Alpine tundra ecosystem [36]. The aim of this study is to evaluate if the three-dimensional fog-catcher is a cost-effective mechanism to provide water for the peasant communities of Yaguachi and Galte.

2. A Social Approach and Hydric Needs of the Galte Communities

Galte is a community located in the province of Chimborazo, within the Guamote canton, in the parish of Palmira, located at a minimum height of 3200 masl (Figure 1). The main economic activity of Galte is agriculture with crops such maize, potatoes, lupine, beans, lentils and, to a lesser extent, breeding small animals such as guinea pigs and sheep. These indigenous communities inhabit a region known as “Palmira desert” which suffers from water shortage. Due to the geographical conditions of the place, it presents low precipitation that oscillates between 389.3 and 761.4 mm annually (Table 1), and wind flow speed between 2.4 and 7.6 m/s (Figure 2). As Table 1 points out, Galte communities have two well defined seasons: one with more rain running from October to May and the second with less rain from June to September. The communities that inhabit the sector lack economic resources and have limited basic services, exposing a somewhat critical scenario in terms of the daily life of the place [55].
The representative crops of the area are those that have served as an economic support for the populations of the present communities. The main crops are cereals such as barley, oats, lupine and quinoa and occasionally corn, the products of which last from six to eight months of development, depending on the altitudinal range at which they are grown. The grass predominates in areas of low irrigation, where cattle are maintained for the production of milk which is sold in the same area. Each family has up to four bovine Creole species, limited by the pasture surface. They also have minor species such as sheep, pigs, chickens, guinea pigs and rabbits. In the Páramo they have cattle for fattening for sale [56].
The determination of the balance and water demand of the Atapo River micro-basin, one of the rivers in charge of supplying water to the Guamote Canton, shows that in the Palmira area it has low rainfall, making it difficult for agricultural activity and obtaining water for consumption [57]. Under such parameters, it is evident that there is not enough water for crops, which are an essential economic source for peasant families. Water demand can be high, depending on each crop. The current study is based on the crops that have been generated in that area, which is detailed in Table 2, with their respective water demands. Some 83% of the users that access the irrigation water perform the irrigation by gravity, which produces an important loss of water, and only 17% use sprinkler irrigation in their irrigation shifts.
The population of the communities belonging to Galte has some 1715 inhabitants, of whom 658 are under 15 years old. Thus, in the peasant communities of Galte, school-age children lead the population quantity, giving rise to a collective analysis on the evident need for water for the sector, on the basis of health, education and basic wellbeing, required by a child of that age [55]. In terms of nutrition, we may highlight that it is balanced, since the communities not only consume the products grown in their parcels, but they also resort to the cantonal markets in search of industrially produced products as well as other products that they do not produce, such as fruits and certain vegetables [60]. The physical development of the children and adolescents of the place depends entirely on the family crops; that is, they live on what they harvest and their food and nutrition will be in proportion to the healthiness that is offered to the sector, both in the home and in the educational social relationship. Analyzing the problem from this point of view, if there is a limited endowment of a vital resource such as water, countless health problems of children and adults will be generated [61].
The economy of rural areas is a conflict faced daily by peasant communities, as their survival is sustained by the production they come to have through a time of hard work, waiting and too much dedication to the crops of the place. One of the situations that frames and parametrizes the economy of the sector is based on the relationship with the dispersed rural population in remote areas, which, due to their condition and social environment, must abide by the resources that they put at their disposal. However, the scarcity of the basic resource such as water condemns the communities to perceive the vulnerability in their agricultural production (Table 3) and, in the worst case, the failure in the final crop [60]. Undoubtedly, the high costs of making investments in water conduction to distant homes entail a great situational problem, causing a climate of disillusionment and family deficit that affects the household, employment, education, migration and population development [62].
Therefore, alternative approaches need to be developed in order to increase the most valuable natural resource of the studied zone. One of the potential solutions may be reached by taking advantage of the fog of the place to supply water to community sectors where this resource is not available. The fog-catcher that will be implemented will attempt to collect water based on a one square meter mesh that is used as an obstacle in which the small, evaporated drops collide and become trapped [55,62]. The fogging systems that are proposed may not fully meet the previously described needs: communities do not need to obtain 100% water from the fog for irrigation, but a certain amount that allows them to irrigate crops on days when water is scarce and there is not enough for their agricultural production to develop on a regular basis [63].
Furthermore, in order to settle the worthiness of 3D fog-catcher in the Guamote area, a benefit cost rate is estimated. Water can be costly depending on the type of production systems, and its real value or its proxy will help establish fog-catcher value. We assume farmers in Guamote region use semi-mechanized production systems. A semi-mechanized production system is a system that some mechanized soil preparation and harvesting, as well as an open irrigation channels. A mechanized production system is a system of technical soil preparation and harvesting and sprinkler irrigation. Sprinkler irrigation systems are more expensive which makes farm production cost higher. The cost of production and water cost is listed in Table 3.
The main aim of the current study was to build a fog-catcher collector with local materials and estimate its benefits through a benefit cost rate if full fog-catcher collector systems fulfill crop’s water demands in the Galte community.

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Construction of Tower and Cost

The “Urku Yaku” implementation was carried out to satisfy the need of the vital liquid to the “Galte-Yaguachi” community at an altitude of 3820 masl in the Chimborazo province, in central Ecuador (Figure 1). The location of each fog-catcher was selected considering a maximum radius of 150 m around the community house, so the supplying point of the collected water remained easily reachable. The fog-collector named “Urku Yaku” is a circular-sectioned tower of approximately 8 m height, built with a combination of both easily bought and low-cost materials, always considering the living condition in the zone of interest (Figure 3).

3.2. Cost Benefit Ratio

On the other hand, the theoretical framework that encompasses economic analysis of fog-catcher collector systems in Galte community is the cost benefit analysis (BCA) which is used to evaluate financial consequences of decision making and its main objective is to increase public welfare [59]. Benefit-cost analysis has been used by the US Army Corps of Engineers early in the twentieth century to evaluate dam and canals projects [59]. This infrastructure has been of fundamental importance because it requires significant allocations of Government’s budget [59]. Prior to the US Army Corps, the French Government developed this tool to analyze public investments [63]. Later, it was an economist named Vilfredo Pareto in 1930, who settled the standards for BCA in the economic field through his work on income distribution and economic efficiency published much earlier in 1896. Then, in 1939 Nicholas Kaldor revised the concept of efficiency to a broader approach so that the Pareto criterion could be satisfied, criterion that was applied recently in water management study [60]. This Kaldor approach allowed projects were economic gains exceed economic losses fits the Pareto criterion [59]. The methodology has been widely used since as many authors have evaluated several applications of irrigation systems [60,61,63].
In this study, we used a benefit cost ratio to set a comparison between cost of building fog-catcher collector systems and the cost of water in semi-mechanized production systems in Galte community. According to [39], any project with a ratio B/C ≥ 1.0 is considered acceptable. The benefit cost ratio is expressed as follows:
B C = ∑ t = o T b t ( 1 + r ) t ∑ t = o T c t ( 1 + r ) t
where bt is the benefits of the project over time, ct is the cost over time, r is the discount rate and t is the time period. In this study, benefits are denoted by water irrigation cost in semi-mechanized systems used by peasants’ communities as the fog collectors will guarantee water for their crops. The cost is represented by building 3D fog collectors cost to fulfill water needs for local crops.

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. “Urku Yaku” Design and Assembly

The tower construction was performed by assembling four modules, with 2 m height of each one. Each tower was built individually, with an easy assembly and transportation to the implantation site. As the Ecuadorian mountain region is not able to grow bamboo for the “Urku Yaku” construction, the main material used was wild cane or giant reed, also known as “Arundo donax” [62]. This grass has been considered as an invasive plant in many subtropical, tropical and temperate regions all over the globe [65,66,67]. With the purpose of assuring the circular form of each module, we have used rings with different diameters, which were made with steel tubes of 75% of the cross section and 1.1 mm of thickness, plastic clamps, nylon rope, 50% of shadow polyester mesh and a plastic collector tank of 1.10 m3 of capacity (Table 4).
The standard building process included the clean-up of a giant reed cortex, which is cut according to the established length (Table 4). Pipe external diameter is ¾ in plus additional 0.12 in and internal pipe diameter is ¾ in. However, the reed diameters are only an approximation. Due to the fact that the reed is a natural material it will always lack constant dimensions, both in diameter and length. Therefore, thicker sections were used in lower modules and the thinner ones in upper modules. “Urku Yaku” is a truncated cone with wider dimensions (lower ring) and narrower dimensions in cone truncated side (upper ring). In order to assemble the elements of the steel ring with the plastic clamps, we performed a cut of approximately 2 cm in width (Figure 4A). Then, to implement the assembly, it was necessary to put it in a flat and horizontal area (Figure 4B). This procedure was executed repetitively locating every element near the lower ring, after they have been placed perpendicularly to the ring and attached to the upper ring. Then, the diagonal reed was laid in each of the modules, taking care to make the structure strong and stable. Hereby every reed intersection was joined with the plastic clamps. This assembly process was repeated with each of the four modules (Figure 4D).
Due to the weather conditions, the Urku Yaku towers will be exposed to solar radiation, humidity, rain among other exogenic or atmospheric phenomena. Therefore, a green varnish paint has been added with the purpose of prolonging the usage of the structure (Figure 4C). For the structure implementation, adjustments in the zone were performed, such as a hole of 30 cm wide and 15 cm of depth in a circular form for the structure support where the first module was located and set with an earth-concrete combination to prevent the structure from collapsing due to the potential appearance of strong winds (Figure 4D).
To select the percentage of shadow on the mesh in order to have it set in the structure, the following must be considered: on the one hand, the higher of the coefficient (thick mesh), the less fog will go through it and the collected water volume will be low. On the other hand, if the mesh is much thinner, drops of fog will not collide with the mesh and the collected water volume will be also low. For meshes with ribbon-like strands such as the ones used in this project, the optimum percentage of shadow is probably found near 50% (see Figure 5). The difference between a 42% shadow mesh and a 62% one can be smaller and it is the 1% order [48].
In the three higher modules, 35 m2 of mesh with 50% of shadow was set. Afterwards, the modules were assembled horizontally and straightened up, over the first module which has been attached to the ground. Finally, each of the modules was attached to tensors in order to give strength to the structure against the action of the wind. Additionally, the collector container was installed, in this project a 1 m3 capacity container with its accessories (keys, hoses and unions) and the waterproof plastic funnel-shaped in the base of the second module were set to lead the collected water to the reservoir.
After the implementation of the three-dimensional “Urku Yaku” fog collector, the investigation about the collected water quality of the reservoir continued, considering that water supply for human consumption must at least fulfill the following requirements: moderate temperature, clarity, pleasing taste, non-corrosive or solid manufacturer, no mineral substances that produce physiological and harmful effects to people’s health, and it must also be free of organisms that are able to produce intestinal infections. The sample of water, for physical-chemical and biological analysis, was taken directly from the source, and the laboratory duly accredited by the Ecuadorian Accreditation Service tests have been about pH, color, turbidity, electrical conductivity, Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and fecal coliforms, according to minimum parameters criteria analysis recommended by the American Water Works Association (AWWA).
The inner mesh used in the “Urku Yaku” construction consists of polyester that allows 50% light to enter, with ribbon filaments of fiber which have a width of approximately 2 mm and are a few tenths of a millimeter thick. This must be put up parallel to the circular walls of the system, so it can adopt a truncated cone shape as each one of the external main structure modules of reed. This truncated cone is illustrated in Figure 6. The quantification of the collected yield in liters on function of the area of the mesh exposed to fog have been listed in Table 5.
To these numbers, the area coefficient of reduction needed to be applied due to the wind effect on the capacity of the mesh to deform. From the monitoring of the amount of water collected by “Urku Yaku” tower, carried out by Galte-Yaguachi population, the daily volumes have been quantified yielding between 20 and 80 L. As the collected area has been determined to be of 30.34 m2, therefore the minimum yield of collection has been approximately of 0.65 L/m2 per day, while the maximum yield of collection reached some 2.63 L/m2.
Location of catchers’ systems would be placed in specific areas selected by Galte’s community and it is shown in Figure 7. These catcher locations present significant winds, especially between June and August, with 4.8 up to 6.5 m/s (Figure 2). However, 3D fogcatchers are designed to hold winds up to 30 km/h (8.35 m/s), while the highest wind flow speed record was 7.6 m/s (27.36 km/h) as presented in Figure 2. The information was obtained by collectors that capture yield from 20 to 80 L of water per square meter per day.
The several monitored basic parameters in laboratory were the minimum ones as recommended by the AWWA (2002). Those indicators of the analyzed parameters are listed in Table 6.
The norms that regulate the quality of drinking water [64] were compared with the norms that regulate the use of approved sources for human consumption (Unified Text of Secondary Legislation of the Ministry of Environment, TULSMA). In Ecuador, the quality of water indicates that the liquid obtained only requires a basic treatment of filtration and disinfection to be adapted to human consumption.

4.2. Galte’s Crop Water Needs

The determination of the balance and water demand of the Atapo River micro-basin presented in Table 1 has one serious problem: the Palmira area has low rainfall, making it difficult to fulfill water requirements of agricultural activity and water consumption. Under such a parameter, it is evident that there is not enough water for crops, which are an essential economic source of peasant families. Water demand can be high, depending on each crop.
The current study was based on the crops produced in Galte community, which are detailed in Table 1. Crop water demand is 29,179.92 m3/year (Table 7). Around 83% of Galte’s peasants that access the irrigation water, use water irrigation by gravity and only 17% use sprinkler irrigation in their irrigation systems. This high percentage of irrigation by gravity produces an important loss of water and has a direct effect on peasants’ production yield.
In order to satisfy crop water needs in a semitech production system, as it is assumed in this study, it will require 48 fog-catcher towers (Table 5) which covers 0.048 ha. The cost of building one tower is 1264.00 USD, and the total cost to satisfy water crops demand using fog-catcher towers is 60,672.00 USD. Regarding production costs, it should include the cost of building the 48 fog-catcher towers. In terms of cost per hectare (Table 8), building 48 towers will increase tower cost in 47.01 USD, which is not very significant.
As a final point, we compared the semitech production cost as it was assumed for Galte’s community with the cost of building 48 three dimensional fog-catcher towers that would fulfill Galte’s peasants’ water needs, which proved that the investment is worth it. The benefit cost relation is 1.90.

5. Conclusions

Some of the needed water supply of the high Andean community of Galte has been able to be supplied by the three-dimensional structure within the “Urku Yaku” principle, of eight meters’ height, which presented a good structural behavior referring to stability for gravitational and lateral actions such as winds.
The technical issues of this fog-collector have been resolved due to the geometric figure of the tower with a truncated cone form and the distribution of vertical and diagonal elements. They both together allowed a tissue capable of bearing and distributing the lightened structure’s own weight. In regards to the side or wind actions, stability has been obtained due to the placements of tensors at external points. The geometric figure adopted by the structure not only provides stability, but it also demonstrates a huge area of collection, raising the daily volume of collection and decreasing the visual impact generated by plain fog-catchers.
The results of the quality of water, determined by the analysis of the physical-chemical and biological properties of the samples, concluded that the collected liquid is suitable for human consumption after a process of basic disinfection. This quality is mainly due to the low presence of pollution in the atmosphere and the technique of collecting water that does not allow contact with the ground, which represents a contamination point especially because of the presence of cattle excrement and animals in the zone.
The “Urku Yaku” three dimensional fog-catcher tower will provide 26,577.84 m3/year of water, 397.92 m3 more than Galte community crops’ requirements. The cost of building those 48 towers reach a significant value of 60 thousand dollars, but the financial and economic analysis proves worth it, as the benefit cost ratio of 1.90 shows. Clearly, this type of solution for a water stressed region cannot be considered for cities or large land areas for agriculture. The 3D fog-catcher tower was designed to cover water needs of a small Andean community. Additional studies may be necessary to determine the level at which this type of fog-catcher can complement other water sources in large-scale agricultural or industrial projects.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, D.V.C.-V. and F.R.-E.; methodology, D.V.C.-V.; software, D.V.C.-V. and F.R.-E.; validation, D.V.C.-V. and T.T.; formal analysis, D.V.C.-V. and F.R.-E.; investigation, D.V.C.-V.; resources, F.R.-E.; data curation, F.R.-E. and T.T.; writing—original draft preparation, D.V.C.-V. and T.T.; writing—review and editing, T.T.; visualization, F.R.-E.; supervision, D.V.C.-V.; project administration, D.V.C.-V.; funding acquisition, D.V.C.-V. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

We wish to acknowledge the members of the community of Galte and their constant support during the development of this project.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Location of the “Urku Yaku” three-dimensional fog-catcher of the current study.
Figure 1. Location of the “Urku Yaku” three-dimensional fog-catcher of the current study.
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Figure 2. Wind flow speed in meters per second within the study area for the period 2005–2015.
Figure 2. Wind flow speed in meters per second within the study area for the period 2005–2015.
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Figure 3. The schematic Urku Yaku 3D Model.
Figure 3. The schematic Urku Yaku 3D Model.
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Figure 4. (A): Module’s raising procedure after the clean-up of a giant reed cortex, where vertical elements with clamps assembled with rings of steel tubes; (B): assembling of diagonal reeds and joining procedure; (C): embedment of the base module to ground; (D): “Urku Yaku” structure once finished and installed.
Figure 4. (A): Module’s raising procedure after the clean-up of a giant reed cortex, where vertical elements with clamps assembled with rings of steel tubes; (B): assembling of diagonal reeds and joining procedure; (C): embedment of the base module to ground; (D): “Urku Yaku” structure once finished and installed.
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Figure 5. Aerodynamic efficiency of a mesh with a circular-section filament in function of the shadow coefficient.
Figure 5. Aerodynamic efficiency of a mesh with a circular-section filament in function of the shadow coefficient.
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Figure 6. (A): Leading waterproof plastic of the collected liquid; (B): coupling of the capture mesh and detailing of the capture process.
Figure 6. (A): Leading waterproof plastic of the collected liquid; (B): coupling of the capture mesh and detailing of the capture process.
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Figure 7. Location of “Urku Yaku” fog-catcher towers.
Figure 7. Location of “Urku Yaku” fog-catcher towers.
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Table
Table 1. Monthly rainfall from the area of study.
Table 1. Monthly rainfall from the area of study.
Precipitation (mm)
YearJanuaryFebruaryMarchAprilMayJuneJulyAuguestSeptemberOctoberNovemberDecemberTotal/Year
201441.611.0111.876.696.138.831.06.693.337.6108.275.3727.9
201331.264.463.35.445.52.934.722.016.564.19.030.3389.3
2012101.074.960.7137.818.511.46.916.50.094.30135.230.3687.5
201173.860.2154.132.329.132.026.713.652.157.759.559.5653.6
201025.546.285.973.554.4144.8547.5616.5735.2827.41124.4372.19653.8
200944.143.121.177.125.98.57.750.116.650.116.645.2406.1
200836.1168.372.5119.0102.942.021.624.017.565.019.615.0703.5
200747.417.4112.653.631.430.010.548.50.016.232.421.8421.8
200651.852.197.178.44.051.62.822.94.163.983.098.1609.8
2005280.644.9393.1952.2136.0430.0312.429.6319.3644.2534.35104.36761.37
x ¯ 72.9158.2587.2381.3245.129.2120.1923.0425.4852.0662.2355.51612.53
Table
Table 2. Water demand of crops (2800–3300 masl) [55,58,59].
Table 2. Water demand of crops (2800–3300 masl) [55,58,59].
CropsSurface (ha)Water Demand
(m3/Year)
Potato2009466.52
Maize408418.33
Bean45235.41
Vetch162845.32
Barley7034041.4
Lupine86.3479.94
Quinoa54.42693.0
Table
Table 3. Cost of production of main crops in Guamote [64].
Table 3. Cost of production of main crops in Guamote [64].
CropsProduction CostWaterTech CostWaterSemitech Cost
US$/haUS$/haUS$/ha
Potato4795.50527.51215.80
Maize1289.33141.8358.02
Bean1517.50166.9368.29
Vetch1552.95170.8269.88
Barley1408.90154.9863.40
Lupine1898.40208.8285.43
Quinoa1449.88159.4965.24
Table
Table 4. Building dimensions of the three-dimensional fog collector.
Table 4. Building dimensions of the three-dimensional fog collector.
Module 1 (Base)
Type of elementAmount (units)Dimensions (m)≈Diameter (m)
Vertical elements222.000.02
Diagonal elements442.100.01–0.02
Upper ring10.02205 ϕ steel pipe1.70
Lower ring10.01905 ϕ steel pipe2.00
Module 2 (intermediate)
Type of elementAmount (units)Dimensions (m)≈Diameter (m)
Vertical elements222.000.02
Diagonal elements442.120.01–0.02
Upper ring10.02205 ϕ steel pipe2.00
Lower ring10.01905 ϕ steel pipe2.30
Module 3 (intermediate)
Type of elementAmount (units)Dimensions (m)≈Diameter (m)
Vertical elements222.000.03
Diagonal elements442.140.02–0.03
Upper ring10.02205 ϕ steel pipe2.30
Lower ring10.01905 ϕ steel pipe2.60
Module 4 (higher)
Type of elementAmount (units)Dimensions (m)≈Diameter (m)
Vertical elements222.000.03–0.04
Diagonal elements442.160.02–0.03
Upper ring10.02205 ϕ steel pipe2.60
Lower ring10.01905 ϕ steel pipe2.90
ϕ represents the diameter around of tube
Table
Table 5. Area of the installed mesh per module. Φ represents the diameter.
Table 5. Area of the installed mesh per module. Φ represents the diameter.
Module 1
Φ Lower base (m)Φ Higher base (m)Height (m)Area (m2)
2.001.702.0≈8.70
Module 2
Φ Lower base (m)Φ Higher base (m)Height (m)Area (m2)
2.32.02.0≈10.10
Module 3
Φ inferior base (m)Φ Higher base (m)Height (m)Area (m2)
2.62.32.0≈11.54
Total area of the mesh (m2)30.34
Table
Table 6. Indicators of basic analyzed parameters of the sampled water quality.
Table 6. Indicators of basic analyzed parameters of the sampled water quality.
ParameterUnitResultPermissible Limit INEN1108Permissible Limit TULSMA
Apparent colorU Pt-Co261575
ConductivityμS/cm50.1<500 mg/L (Social protection ministry of Colombia)
TurbidityNTU1.305100
pHU5.11---6–9
Fecal coliformsNMP4.5Lack of coliforms20
Chemical demand of oxygen (COD)mg/L<10---<4
Table
Table 7. Galte fog-catcher system estimation.
Table 7. Galte fog-catcher system estimation.
CategoryValue
Water Crop Demand (m3/year)26,179.92
Fogcatcher yield (m3/unit/year)553.71
#fulfill demand (units)48.00
Fogcatcher system cost (USD/unit)1264.00
Total cost (USD)60,672.00
Table
Table 8. Galte production benefit estimates [68].
Table 8. Galte production benefit estimates [68].
CropsCrop Yield (Tm/ha)Price (USD/Tm)Gross Profits (US$/ha)Production Cost US$/ha
Potatoe16.41484.007942.444795.50
Maize6.35321.202039.621289.33
Bean1.763572.556287.691517.50
Vetch3.60958.003448.801552.95
Barley1.62550.00891.001408.90
Lupine0.902145.001930.501898.40
Quinoa0.93550.00511.501449.88
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Carrera-Villacrés, D.V.; Rodríguez-Espinosa, F.; Toulkeridis, T. Potential Solutions for the Water Shortage Using Towers of Fog Collectors in a High Andean Community in Central Ecuador. Sustainability 2023, 15, 9237. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15129237

AMA Style

Carrera-Villacrés DV, Rodríguez-Espinosa F, Toulkeridis T. Potential Solutions for the Water Shortage Using Towers of Fog Collectors in a High Andean Community in Central Ecuador. Sustainability. 2023; 15(12):9237. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15129237

Chicago/Turabian Style

Carrera-Villacrés, David Vinicio, Fabián Rodríguez-Espinosa, and Theofilos Toulkeridis. 2023. "Potential Solutions for the Water Shortage Using Towers of Fog Collectors in a High Andean Community in Central Ecuador" Sustainability 15, no. 12: 9237. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15129237

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