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Review

Peruvian Wetlands: National Survey, Diagnosis, and Further Steps toward Their Protection

by
Giuliana Romero-Mariscal
1,2,
Pablo A. Garcia-Chevesich
2,3,4,*,
Lino Morales-Paredes
2,5,
Armando Arenazas-Rodriguez
2,6,
Juana Ticona-Quea
2,5,
Gary Vanzin
2,3 and
Jonathan O. Sharp
2,3,7
1
Escuela de Ingeniería Ambiental, Facultad de Ingeniería de Procesos, Universidad Nacional de San Agustín de Arequipa, Arequipa 04001, Peru
2
Center for Mining Sustainability, Universidad Nacional de San Agustín de Arequipa and Colorado School of Mines, Arequipa 04001, Peru
3
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO 80401, USA
4
Intergubernamental Hydrological Programme, United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Montevideo 11200, Uruguay
5
Departamento Académico de Química, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Formales, Universidad Nacional de San Agustín de Arequipa, Arequipa 04001, Peru
6
Departamento Académico de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional de San Agustín de Arequipa, Arequipa 04001, Peru
7
Hydrologic Science and Engineering Program, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO 80401, USA
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2023, 15(10), 8255; https://doi.org/10.3390/su15108255
Submission received: 15 March 2023 / Revised: 19 April 2023 / Accepted: 30 April 2023 / Published: 18 May 2023
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Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Wetlands are crucial hydrological features that provide benefits, including ecosystem services and habitat conservation, protection from flooding associated with sea level rise and extreme events, water storage and treatment, recreation, and aesthetics, among others. Peru is one of the few countries in Latin America that has not developed a national wetland inventory. While this can in part be attributed to the limited availability of peer-reviewed publications in the English literature, a larger quantity of Peruvian wetland-related publications are available in Spanish, and are less accessible to the global population. In this paper, we developed an extensive review and synthesis of the Spanish literature, including university theses, peer-reviewed articles, and government reports. Our report focuses on evaluating the state of the art of Peruvian wetlands in terms of temporal evolution, geographical distribution, vested institutions, research topics (e.g., water quality, fauna, flora, microorganisms, etc.), and advances toward the conservation of wetlands. The analysis identified 274 wetland-related publications in Spanish (188 theses, 83 peer-reviewed, and 6 government reports) and a temporal increase in dissemination over the past two decades. The reports encompassed 161 distinct wetlands distributed nationwide; however, most of the investigations focused on only a few wetland bodies with a disproportionate concentration in just three administrative regions. This reveals that wetland-related research is unevenly distributed in Peru, and highlights a need to extend this knowledge to underrepresented systems and regions. Although Peru ranks third in South America for protected (Ramsar) wetland areas, case studies have revealed that wetlands in the country are vulnerable to human activities. Recent national legislation established in 2021 should help to address this challenge, as before this time, there was a more decentralized approach, whereby each administrative region held responsibility for the protection of their own wetlands. Collective findings indicate that research activity should be increased nationally in order to better understand the function and benefits of wetlands throughout Peru, in addition to the continued development and enforcement of regulations designed to protect these valuable ecosystems. Finally, since a national Peruvian wetland inventory is urgently needed, this analysis provides a baseline for this development of, as well as identifying gaps in, knowledge needed for appropriate national representation.

1. Introduction

Defined as “areas where water covers the soil or is present at or near its surface during all or parts of a normal year” [1], wetlands provide a biologically rich habitat for countless fauna, including birds [2], fish [3], amphibians [4], and insects [5], as well as a wide variety of flora [6], etc. Wetlands provide ecosystem services and habitat conservation [7], protection from flooding associated with rising sea level and extreme events [8], water storage and treatment [9], recreation [10], and aesthetics [11], among others. In addition to having crucial ecosystem functions, wetlands are widely recognized for their social benefits covering broad topics including hydrology [12], economics [13] and social sciences [14].
Despite their indisputable value to ecosystems and society, wetlands around the world are dramatically declining in terms of both surface area and health (e.g., [15]) in association with global warming (e.g., [16], 2013), development [17], hydrological imbalances as a consequence of excessive water consumption (e.g., [18], 2022) and/or pollution (e.g., [19], 2022). In response to this, several countries have taken action to preserve these important ecosystems. However, a crucial first step in the conservation of wetlands in a nation is to document and characterize them, a procedure commonly known as “national wetland inventory”. As such, efforts to develop national inventories have been made by authors from many countries, such as Australia [20], China [21], India [22], South Africa [23], Russia [24], and the United States [25], among countless others. Latin America also has detailed wetland inventories for Argentina [26], Brazil [27], Chile (e.g., [28], 2006), and Colombia (e.g., [29], 2019).
Peru is one of the few countries on the South American continent that has not advanced significantly in the field of national wetland classification, evaluation, or inventory. To this end, Peru’s Ministry of the Environment recently developed a general survey of the country’s surface occupied by wetlands, including rivers, lakes, and lagoons (2,320,255.72 ha), flooded tropical forests (15,361,838.70 ha), Andean wetlands (548,174.41 ha), and coastal wetlands (63,739.65 ha), all using existing cartographic information [30]. Similarly, the National Institute of Glacier Research and Mountain Ecosystems (INAIGEM) is currently working toward a national inventory of Andean wetlands. The existing body of research for Peruvian wetlands within peer-reviewed English-language journals is not comprehensive, and includes a focus on research topics including bird habitats and the ecology of birds (e.g., [31], 2020; [32], 2021), macroinvertebrates [33], microalgae [34], and spiders (e.g., [35], 2020), as well as the broader ecosystem services of a specific body of water (e.g., [36], 2021), the presence of water pollutants [37], general characterization [38], and conservation status [39]. Although these capture important areas of knowledge necessary to evaluating a nation’s wetland status, and are all based on peer-reviewed English publications, there is a larger compilation of less internationally visible research findings reported in Spanish, and in some cases not subjected to peer review, on the topic of Peruvian wetlands. Therefore, this presents an opportunity to synthesize and evaluate what is currently known about the country’s wetlands at the national level.
In this paper, we develop an extensive review of the literature relating to wetland-based research in Peru that intentionally excludes glacier lagoons as disparate systems. Our comprehensive search of Spanish-language communications included graduate and undergraduate theses from 95 licensed national universities, peer-reviewed journals, and government reports. We focused on understanding the locations of identified wetlands within Peru’s territory, how the extent of characterization and research links to particular wetlands or regions, and primary research topics. This focus, in turn, allows the identification of patterns and recommendations that can help future decision-makers rationalize and more effectively target the conservation of these important ecosystems. The identification was based on a systematic search conducted in Spanish using the digital repositories of the country’s universities, Scopus, Web of Science, Scielo, and the unique digital research platform of the Peruvian government (https://www.gob.pe/), with the keywords: “Peru” and “wetland”.

2. Findings and Discussion

2.1. General Overview

A total of 274 studies related to Peru’s wetlands published in Spanish were identified, of which 186 (68%) corresponded to graduate/undergraduate theses from 44 universities (out of 95 universities that currently exist in the country), 83 (30%) were peer-reviewed articles, and 5 (2%) were reports from two government agencies: the Peruvian Ministry of Environment (MINAM) and INAIGEM. Therefore, only about one-third of the total reports were published in peer-reviewed publications in Spanish-language journals, which, as such, are less available to the international scientific community. Although the number of government reports was dwarfed by university theses, these are more comprehensive and presumably subjected to internal review, and hence represent a valuable integrative resource. A list of all identified wetlands (by administrative region) and the respective studies is included in Table A1, Appendix A.
In general, national research related to wetlands has undergone a rapid increase in all three categories in the last two decades (Figure 1). Although the COVID-19 pandemic brought strict travel restrictions to Peru, the publication trajectory was strong in 2019, 2020, and 2021, with 37, 33, and 51 studies, respectively. The participation of government agencies began only in the last decade, demonstrating increased focus in that sector.
After carefully evaluating the available literature and with additional analysis using remote sensing tools, a total of 161 discrete (individual) wetlands were identified within Peru’s territory (see Figure 2). Figure 2 illustrates the location of each wetland and the number of studies per administrative region. A nearly equal distribution of identified wetlands could be grouped as coastal (46.6%) or highland (47.2%) areas of Perú. Only nine (6.2%) wetlands were located in the Amazon jungle (see Figure 2 for locations). The Peruvian Amazon (74,644 km2) is home to most of the country’s peat bogs, which are ecosystems that contribute to biological diversity, the global water cycle, and global carbon storage [40]. Some of them are located within protected areas such as Pacaya Samiria National Reserve (Loreto Region), while the rest are located in areas where they are seriously threatened by anthropogenic activities such as oil concessions, gold mining and agriculture [40]. Finally, the highest density of wetlands were concentrated in the Lima and Ancash regions, with 18 wetlands each, followed by the Arequipa Region with 15 wetlands.
The results from this review show that some wetlands in Peru have been the epicenter of many investigations (e.g., Pantanos de Villa wetland in the Lima Region), while others have only been identified, and not studied (e.g., Salinas de Otuma wetland in the Ica Region, Flaco Grande wetland in the La Libertad Region, Bocapán wetland in the Tumbes Region). This uneven distribution of wetland-related research within Peru is visually captured in Figure 2, which illustrates the number of wetlands studies found in each of the 24 administrative regions. Three regions account for approximately two-thirds of wetland-related research in the country. This is led by Lima (86 studies with 36 additional studies in the Constitutional Province of Callao), followed by Arequipa (30 studies) and Ancash (29 studies). However, as shown in Figure 2, the number of wetlands existing in an administrative region is not necessarily correlated with the number of published studies. Furthermore, certain wetland systems such as Los Pantanos de Villa in Lima (37 studies, 13.4%) and Los Humedales de Ventanilla in Callao (35 studies, 12.6%) have experienced a disproportionate extent of research, with the richness of studies concentrated within these two wetlands. Although it may detract from diversity and breadth, this depth of study offers an opportunity to explore many facets of these valuable systems while normalizing to a location. On the other hand, only one study was found in five regions (Amazonas, Apurimac, Moquegua, San Martín, and Ucayali), while the Cajamarca Region shows a complete absence of wetland-related research.

2.2. South American Perspective and Regulations

The number of wetlands identified in this review (not including lagoons formed as a result of glacier retreat such as Laguna Parón in the Ancash Region) is significantly lower than the number of wetlands found within the territorial limits of neighboring countries, such as Chile and Colombia, but is higher than in Ecuador, Bolivia, and Paraguay (see Table 1). However, countries consider designating wetland areas on different scales, making it difficult to develop a comparative analysis. The 1971 Ramsar Convention represents the only international agreement that exists to promote the conservation and knowledge of wetlands worldwide, with thousands of “Ramsar sites” currently protected in different countries (e.g., [41]). For example, although Brazil reported only 84 wetlands (Table 1), the country has 27 Ramsar areas, 3 of them (almost 16 million hectares) incorporated in 2018 [42]. Bolivia stands out as the country with the largest protected Ramsar wetland worldwide (Llanos de Moxos wetland, 6.9 million hectares), while Brazil leads as the country with the largest total Ramsar area in the region, with almost 27 million hectares, followed by Bolivia with 14 million hectares [42]. Although only 9.6% of Peru’s wetlands are protected, with 14 Ramsar sites (the last was “Estuario de Virrilá” in Piura Region, northern Peru, incorporated in 2021), the county still has approximately 6.8 million hectares of Ramsar wetlands at a national level, making it the third country in South America in terms of Ramsar-designated surface, at approximately one-quarter and one-half of the areas designated for Brazil and Bolivia, respectively (see Table 1). This shows interest in protecting Peru’s wetlands under the international Ramsar agreement, and also highlights the importance of developing a national wetland inventory to further this effort.
Another important nuance to consider is that some countries classify their wetlands on a regional scale as interconnected systems (e.g., Brazil), while others, such as Chile and Colombia, develop their inventories from an individual perspective, identifying every single discrete wetland. As a result, Brazil has only 84 wetlands, while Chile and Colombia reported more than 18,000 and 30,000, respectively, making it difficult to develop a comparative analysis. As in this review, the authors recommend following the Chilean and Colombian approach to better compare regional efforts and the conservation status of individual wetlands within each country.
Despite the international Ramsar site designation for a subset of prominent wetlands, each country has its own regulatory system designed for wetland protection. This presents challenges in comparing the way wetlands are managed in different nations. For the specific case of Peru, the country’s Political Constitution states that every person has the right to enjoy a balanced and healthy environment (Art 2, inc. 22°, Constitución Política del Perú, Art. 2, 1993). Furthermore, there are many laws related to national protected areas, such as Supreme Decree 023-2021-MINAM on National Environmental Policy; the General Environmental Law #28,611, whose Article 99 states that wetlands are fragile ecosystems and need to be protected, and the “National Wetland Strategy” created in 2015 (Supreme Decree DS-004-2015-MINAM). Additionally, there have been many laws created specifically to preserve wetlands, with the most important one approved in 2021; the Supreme Decree DS-006-21-MINAM recognizes the strategic value of wetlands for water and food supply for locals and their livelihoods (at a national level), and also emphasizes their relevance to biodiversity.
Before this recent centralized legislative action, wetlands within the country were managed in a decentralized manner, whereby each region was responsible for the conservation and sustainable management of its own wetland systems. Consequently, Peruvian administrative regions have been individually advancing toward the protection of their wetlands for years through the creation of new laws, mainly during the last decade (see Table 2). However, national laws created to protect, for example, national forests involve jail time (e.g., Penal Code DL-635, Article 310), while the only way wetlands can be protected in Peru is by applying sanctions (not jail time) to individuals who violate environmental laws related to wetlands, making the legal system “less powerful”. Furthermore, since the results of this analysis have revealed that wetland-related research is unevenly distributed throughout the country and is concentrated mainly in three administrative regions (see Section 2.1), it is clear that it is necessary to study and preserve these currently geographically underrepresented ecosystems.

2.3. Case Studies

There are interesting cases wherein Peruvian wetlands have experienced changes in surface area or water quality, leading to a reduction in ecosystem services. Among the main causes are rapid urban development and lack of proper land use planning, as shown in Figure 3 for the Pantanos de Villa wetland in the Lima region [53], which reduced the wetland area by more than 90% in two decades. Agricultural activities have been responsible for wetland declines, as is the case for the Eten wetland (Lambayeque Region), where surface and gravity crop irrigation systems resulted in high quantities of chloride and salinity in adjacent wetland water [36]. Regarding another category of anthropogenic stressors, the Laguna El Mirador wetland (Callao, Lima Region) presents symptoms of eutrophication (green color, smell of stagnant water, and lack of aquatic animals) due to the accumulation of garbage and sewage flows [54] (Figure 4). Conversely, excessive agricultural irrigation practices have also resulted in the formation of wetlands. This was the case for the 2.4 km2 San Camilo wetland (Arequipa Region), which formed around 2009 [55], as shown in Figure 5. It was also true for the Laguna Paraíso wetland (Lima region), which is a lagoon that originally developed as a result of marine intrusion, and since 1972, it has been fed by waters from the nearby Santa Rosa irrigation project [56].
Through the above examples and the scientific literature discussed in this analysis, it is obvious that wetlands in Peru are not fully protected by the regulatory system, and that there are legal gaps that make it difficult to protect them from various threats such as pollution, excessive pumping, degradation, and overgrazing, among others. For example, Andean wetlands (also called “bofedales”) were exploited for the extraction of peat without considering that this prime material can naturally take hundreds of years to form, and the great contribution it makes to aquatic ecosystems, not to mention carbon capture [57].
In 2021, a new national regulation (Supreme Decree 006-2021-MINAM) sought to establish provisions for the centralized and multi-sectoral management of wetlands. In Chapter III of the document, this standard defines actions that can be applied for the sustainable management of wetlands in Peru, including measures to protect these fragile ecosystems, authorized activities that can be carried out in wetlands, the recovery of degraded wetlands, and the preparation of National Wetland, Glacier, and Lagoon inventories. However, since INAIGEM is in charge of this important task, the focus appears to be confined to Andean regions, and in particular glacier lagoons.

Research Areas

As summarized in Figure 6, most authors have focused their investigations on the study and characterization of fauna, with a focus on birds [39], herpetofauna [58], macroinvertebrates [59], bioindicators [60], invertebrates [61], fish [62], and insects [63]. Among the most interesting fauna-related studies, a report from the Ministry of Environment compiles information on the Province of Sechura. Although this province hosts one of the driest deserts in the world, three types of wetlands were identified: an estuary (Virrilá), coastal lagoons (Ñapique and La Niña), and mangroves (San Pedro and Chulliyache), all of them with unique ecological characteristics and acting as homes to various endemic animal species [64].
Another relevant research topic is represented by water quality and environmental impact, which are commonly associated with water pollutants such as sediments [65], heavy metals [66], eutrophication [54], noise pollution [67], and environmental risk [68]. Similarly, the physical–chemical characterization of wetlands was also grouped within this area of research.
Other relevant research topics were flora (commonly associated with ecophysiology [69]), ecosystem services (associated with water resources [70]), ecotourism [71], economic development [72], sustainable water use [73], CO2 fixation [74], soil resources [75], climate change [76], geographic information systems [77], and remote sensing [78].
These broad groups collectively account for 207 studies, or 75% of the wetland-related studies conducted in Peru since the early 2000s. The remaining studies were represented by infrastructure (associated with sustainable design [79], architecture [80], and urbanization [81]), remediation (linked to phytoremediation [82], environmental management [83], and, to a lesser extent, microalgae/plankton [84]), and microorganisms in general (e.g., protozoa [85], microbiological characterization [65], and virus parasites [86]). However, 8% of the studies focused on unusual topics such as environmental education [87], economic assessment [88], public policies [89], livestock [90], fires [91], and geomorphology [92], all included in others shown in Figure 6.

3. Conclusions and Recommendations

Through this extensive literature review, it has been possible to develop a good overview of the current understanding and identification of Peruvian wetlands, with their respective locations, completed research, and general conservation status. Unfortunately, the results of this initial assessment show that the wetlands in the country are not well protected or studied, except for some regions where research is more advanced. To this point, the more prosperous and populous regions (Lima (including Callao Province), Ancash, and Arequipa) are national epicenters of wetland studies (collectively comprising 65% of the 274 studies found nationwide). The lack of investigations in other regions of the country may be explained by a lack of regional priority, as until 2021, each administrative region was in charge of protecting its own wetlands. However, wetland-related investigations have been increasing with time, with a strong presence of academic research in the form of both peer-reviewed journal articles and university-specific theses. This highlights a role that academic institutions can play in further protecting and understanding these important natural resources.
A total of 161 distinct wetland systems were identified, most of which are located in the coastal and Andean portions of the country. An embrace of Ramsar area designation (regionally following Brazil and Bolivia) provides a clear precedent and foundation for protection. However, there is an urgent need to better assess, monitor, and understand the status of these important and fragile ecosystems in Peru. As a country with uneven geographical efforts being made to study wetlands, more resources are needed to protect shallow bodies of water that could be in danger due to pollution or inappropriate land use planning. Despite this, research topics are well represented, though concentrated in a small subset of wetlands and administrative regions, resulting in a clear need to better understand how wetlands in Peru work from different regional and research perspectives. Similarly, the effect of climate change on wetland ecosystems is a topic that needs to be strongly incorporated into Peruvian research, as only three studies were found on this increasingly important global challenge.
Finally, since a national Peruvian wetland inventory is urgently needed, this analysis provides a baseline for its development, and also identifies regional and topical gaps in the knowledge that should be filled for a more comprehensive outcome.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, G.R.-M.; methodology, G.R.-M. and P.A.G.-C.; formal analysis, G.R.-M., L.M.-P., A.A.-R. and J.T.-Q.; investigation, G.R.-M.; resources, J.O.S. and L.M.-P.; data curation, G.R.-M., L.M.-P., A.A.-R. and J.T.-Q.; writing—original draft preparation, G.R.-M., P.A.G.-C., L.M.-P., A.A.-R., J.T.-Q., G.V. and J.O.S.; writing—review and editing, J.O.S. and G.V.; visualization, L.M.-P.; supervision, J.O.S. and G.V.; project administration, J.O.S. and L.M.-P.; funding acquisition, J.O.S. and L.M.-P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This project was partially supported by the Center for Mining Sustainability, a joint venture between the Universidad Nacional San Agustin (Arequipa, Peru) and the Colorado School of Mines (USA), collaborative funding from the National Institutes for Water Resources and U.S. Geological Survey (NIWR-USGS) subaward G-62991-01, and the United States Bureau of Reclamation Water Desalination Research and Development Grant R22AC00427-00.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

The authors acknowledge the efforts of INAIGEM, an institution that has made significant advances toward the characterization and conservation of Andean wetlands in Peru.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Appendix A

Table
Table A1. Wetland-related studies found in Peru, by wetland name and administrative Region (“R” indicates Ramsar site).
Table A1. Wetland-related studies found in Peru, by wetland name and administrative Region (“R” indicates Ramsar site).
RegionWetland NameStudies
Amazonas HUMEDAL CENTRO POBLADO POMACOCHAS[81]
Áncash EL CAMPANARIO[93]
HUMEDAL DE VILLA MARÍA[89,94,95,96,97,98,99,100,101,102]
HUMEDAL DE SAN JUAN[94,100]
HUMEDALES DEL P.P.A.O.[94,100]
HUMEDALES DE LA PENÍNSULA/HUMEDAL EL PARAISO[100]
HUMEDALES DEL SUR[100]
HUMEDALES HUARMEY[103]
HUMEDAL DE CASMA[103,104]
HUMEDAL DE CHIMBOTE[103]
BAHÍA DE SANTA[103]
HUMEDAL YANAYACU[74]
HUMEDAL COLLOTACOCH[105]
HUMEDAL UQUIÁN[106]
HUMEDAL DE CONOCOCHA[107,108,109]
HUMEDAL QUEROCOCHA[104,107]
QUILLCAYHUANCA[110,111]
LLANGANUCO[104,111]
CARHUASCANCHA[111]
Apurímac LAGUNA PACUCHA [104]
Arequipa LAGUNA DE MEJIA (R)[58,59,71,103,104,112,113,114,115,116,117]
PEDREGAL[103]
INFIERNILLO[103]
CAMAN (PUCCHUN)[103]
HUMEDAL CHALHUANCA[70,77,118,119,120]
HUMEDALES DE YANQUE[76]
HUMEDALES DE SAN ANTONIO DE CHUCA[76]
HUMEDAL DE PERCA[121]
HUMEDAL DE CCALLACCAPCHA[121]
LAGUNAS DE SALINAS (R)[122,123,124,125]
TOCRA[109]
LAGUNA PUNTA DE BOMBÓN [103]
LAGUNA PUMAGRA [104]
LAGUNA ANINSHIGUA [104]
LAGUNA EQUEMPA [104]
Ayacucho HUMEDAL HUAPER[126,127]
OCCOLLO[128]
CHURIA[128]
ROSASPAMPA[128]
GUITARRACHAYOCC[129]
PICHCCA-HUASI[129]
LAGUNA PARINACOCHA[130]
Callao (constitutional province) HUMEDALES DE VENTANILLA[68,69,91,103,104,131,132,133,134,135,136,137,138,139,140,141,142,143,144,145,146,147,148,149,150,151,152,153,154,155,156,157,158,159,160,161]
LAGUNA EL MIRADOR[54]
Cajamarca No wetlands foundNo studies found.
Cusco HUMEDAL KORQOCHA[162]
LUCRE HUACARPAY (R)[88,104]
LAGUNA URCOS [104]
LAGUNA PIURAY [104]
LAGUNA HUAYPO [104]
LAGUNA CHAKÁN[104]
Huancavelica BOFEDAL CALLQUI CHICO[163]
BOFEDAL TINYACLLA[164]
BOFEDAL PUEBLO LIBRE[164]
HUMEDAL ABRA HUAYRACCASA[85]
LAGUNA CHOCLOCOCHA[165]
HUMEDAL DE PILPICHACA[166]
APACHETA[128]
LICAPA[128]
SAN FELIPE[128]
SANTA ANA[109]
PUCAPAMPA[109]
Huánuco HUMEDAL RENACO[167]
HUMEDAL LAGUNA BELLA[168]
Ica HUMEDAL CAUCATO[169,170,171]
HUMEDAL ANDRES[172]
HUMEDAL DE TAMBO DE CHINCHA[173]
RESERVA NACIONAL DE PARACAS (R)[103,104,117]
BAHÍA DE LA INDEPENDENCIA[103]
SALINAS DE OTUMA[103]
HUMEDALES DE PISCO[103]
BOCA DEL RIO CHINCHA[103]
BAHÍA SAN NICOLÁS [104]
PUNTA SAN JUAN [104]
Junín LAGO CHINCHAYCOCHA[174,175]
HUMEDAL PUCUSH UCLO[176,177,178,179]
HUMEDAL CHOCON[180]
HUMEDAL DE LA COMUNIDAD DE CHUIROC[181]
HUMEDALES TRAGADERO[37,66,182]
POMACOCHA[183]
CUNCANCOCHA[183]
INCACOCHA[183]
ÑAHUIMPUQUIO[183]
HUMEDAL EN SHULLCAS[38]
HUMEDAL PACA[37,66]
RESERVA NACIONAL JUNÍN (R)[117]
La Libertad LAGUNA EL TORO[184]
LAGUNA LOS ÁNGELES[184]
LAGUNAS VERDES (3 LAGUNAS)[184]
HUMEDAL CAMPO NUEVO GUADALUPITO[185,186,187]
HUMEDAL DEL PALACIO NIK-AN (EX TSHUDI)[188]
HUMEDAL DE HUANCHACO[84,103,187,189,190,191]
HUMEDALES DE SALAVERRY[192,193]
HUMEDAL TRES PALOS[187,194]
HUMEDAL CAÑONCILLO[187]
CERRO NEGRO[103]
HUMEDALES EL TUBO[103]
BOCA DEL RÍO MOCHE[103]
FACLO GRANDE[103]
Lambayeque HUMEDALES DE ETEN[36,92,103,195,196]
HUMEDALES DEL CASERÍO DE SAN PEDRO[85]
BOCA DEL RÍO ZAÑA[103]
Lima PANTANOS DE VILLA (R)[62,67,73,79,80,83,103,104,117,133,154,171,197,198,199,200,201,202,203,204,205,206,207,208,209,210,211,212,213,214,215,216,217,218,219]
HUMEDAL SANTA ROSA DE CHANCAY[33,103,154,220,221,222,223,224,225,226]
LAGUNA EL PARAISO[39,56,69,103,154,203,224,227]
ALBUFERA DEL MEDIO MUNDO[87,103,104,154,171,203,224,228,229,230,231,232,233]
LAGUNA ENCANTADA[234,235]
HUMEDAL PUERTO VIEJO[61,86,153,154,203,224,236,237]
HUMEDAL HUALMAY- CARQUÍN[63,238,239,240]
HUMEDAL DEL SECTOR DE YANAMA[241]
HUMEDAL DE CARAMPOMA[242]
HUMEDAL LA ARENILLA[32,103]
HUMEDAL DE SALINAS DE CHILCA[63,104]
BOCA DEL RÍO CAÑETE[103]
PANTANOS DE SAN PEDRO[103]
BOCA DEL RÍO SUPE[103]
BOCA DEL RÍO PATIVILCA[103]
LAGUNAS TICTICOCHA[243]
YURACMAYO[243]
HUMEDAL EN LA CUENCA ALTA DEL RÍO CHILLÓN[244]
Loreto TURBERA DE BUENA VISTA[245]
TURBERA SAN JORGE[245]
TUBERA QUISTOCOCHA[245]
HUMEDAL EN PAMPA CHICA[65,81]
COCHA BOLITA [104]
Madre de Dios HUMEDAL DE LAS MERCEDES[246]
COCHA CASHU [104]
Moquegua HUMEDAL DE TITIJONES[247]
Pasco LAGUNA EL OCONAL[248]
QUIULACOCHA[243]
YANAMATE[243]
Piura HUMEDAL SANTA JULIA[249,250,251]
MANGLAR DE SAN PEDRO (R)[104,252,253,254]
HUMEDAL DE MÁNCORA[103,255]
LAGUNA ÑAPIQUE[64,253]
LAGUNA LA NIÑA[64,253]
HUMEDALES EN LA MUNICIPALIDAD DE FRIAS[256]
ESTUARIO DE VIRRILA (R)[103,104,253,257]
BOCA DEL RÍO PIURA[103]
BOCA DEL RÍO CHIRA[103]
PUNTA BALCONES[103]
LAGUNA DE LOS PATOS[258]
Puno MAZOCRUZ[109]
LAGUNA UMAYO [104]
LAGUNA CHACCHURA [104]
LAGUNA HUAYCHO [104]
LAGUNA LA CALZADA [104]
LAGUNA MAQUERA [104]
LAGUNA PUCARANI [104]
LAGUNA SAYTOCOCHA [104]
LAGUNA SUYTOCOCHA [104]
San Martín HUMEDAL ANDIVIELA DE MORALES[259]
Tacna HUMEDALES DE ITE[60,103,104,260,261,262,263,264,265,266,267,268,269,270]
LOS BAÑOS[103]
HUMEDAL JAPOPUNCO[271]
HUMEDAL ANCOMARCA[272]
HUMEDAL HUAYTIRE[273,274,275]
Tumbes LAGUNA PUNTA DE MERO[103]
QUEBRADA CANOAS[103]
HUMEDALES DE BOCAPAN[103]
BAHÍA DE TUMBES (R)[103,117]
Ucayali LAGUNA YARINACOCHA[104]

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Figure 1. Temporal evolution of publications related to wetlands (in Spanish) focusing on Peru. As shown in the legend, the bars are further discretized by publication type. Of note, the last temporal bracket (2020–2022*) represents 3 rather than 5 years, suggesting that this trend of increased interest and study continues.
Figure 1. Temporal evolution of publications related to wetlands (in Spanish) focusing on Peru. As shown in the legend, the bars are further discretized by publication type. Of note, the last temporal bracket (2020–2022*) represents 3 rather than 5 years, suggesting that this trend of increased interest and study continues.
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Figure 2. Geographical trends in studied wetlands. The red dots represent the locations of discrete wetlands identified in this national review, together with shading that indicates the total number of studies related to wetland per administrative department.
Figure 2. Geographical trends in studied wetlands. The red dots represent the locations of discrete wetlands identified in this national review, together with shading that indicates the total number of studies related to wetland per administrative department.
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Figure 3. Satellite images showing Los Pantanos de Villa (Lima Region, central Peru), which went from having 5000 ha of wetland surface (2002 (left)) to only 300 ha (2022 (right)), due to the expansion of the city [53] (source: Google Earth).
Figure 3. Satellite images showing Los Pantanos de Villa (Lima Region, central Peru), which went from having 5000 ha of wetland surface (2002 (left)) to only 300 ha (2022 (right)), due to the expansion of the city [53] (source: Google Earth).
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Figure 4. Satellite images taken in 2009 (left) and 2021 (right), showing Laguna El Mirador wetlands in Callao (Lima Region), which has not only reduced its size, but also exhibits eutrophication [54] (source: Google Earth).
Figure 4. Satellite images taken in 2009 (left) and 2021 (right), showing Laguna El Mirador wetlands in Callao (Lima Region), which has not only reduced its size, but also exhibits eutrophication [54] (source: Google Earth).
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Figure 5. Satellite images taken in 1985 (left) and 2021 (right), showing the San Camilo lagoon in the Arequipa Region (southern Peru). This lagoon formed around 2009 as a consequence of excessive agricultural irrigation [55] (source: Google Earth).
Figure 5. Satellite images taken in 1985 (left) and 2021 (right), showing the San Camilo lagoon in the Arequipa Region (southern Peru). This lagoon formed around 2009 as a consequence of excessive agricultural irrigation [55] (source: Google Earth).
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Figure 6. Topical groupings of research addressed in Peruvian wetland-related publications synthesized in this study.
Figure 6. Topical groupings of research addressed in Peruvian wetland-related publications synthesized in this study.
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Table
Table 1. Number of wetlands and Ramsar sites in some South American countries.
Table 1. Number of wetlands and Ramsar sites in some South American countries.
CountryNumber of WetlandsRamsar SitesTotal Ramsar Area (ha)Source
Argentina6235,716,578[42,43]
Bolivia281114,842,405[42,44]
Brazil842726,794,455[42,45]
Chile18,000+16363,927[42,46]
Colombia31,70212814,717[42,47]
Ecuador143191,064,483[42,48]
Paraguay226785,970[42,49]
Peru136146,789,685This study; [42,50]
Uruguay113435,837[42,51]
Venezuela1845265,668[42,52]
Table
Table 2. Select legal initiatives created to protect specific or national wetland systems in Peru.
Table 2. Select legal initiatives created to protect specific or national wetland systems in Peru.
JurisdictionLegal InstrumentYear CreatedPurpose
NationwideMandatory Resolution RM-054-96-INRENA1996Approved National Wetland Conservation Strategy
Supreme Decree DS-087-2004-PCM2004Declare wetlands as ecological protected areas
Supreme Decree DS-020-2008-EM2008Wetland protection from mining operations
Supreme Decree DS-012-2009-MINAM2009Protection of “fragile” ecosystems such as wetlands
Supreme Decree DS-005-2013-PCM2013Creation of a Multisectorial “National Wetland Committee”
Supreme Decree DS-2020-MINAM2020Approved general contents to manage wetlands at regional level
RegionalSupreme Decree DS-074-2006-AG 2006Declared Regional Conservation Area
Dictamen 037-2016-GRHCO-CRCPPPAT-AL2016Declared as Priority and Regional Interest area
Supreme Decree DS-001-2018-MINAM2018Declared reserved zone
Law 3834-2018-CR2018Declared fragile ecosystem
Regional Order RO-002-2020-CR/GOB.REG.TACNA2020Declared priority to study regional wetland systems
Municipal Order OM-473-AREQUIPA2022Declared conservation area
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Romero-Mariscal, G.; Garcia-Chevesich, P.A.; Morales-Paredes, L.; Arenazas-Rodriguez, A.; Ticona-Quea, J.; Vanzin, G.; Sharp, J.O. Peruvian Wetlands: National Survey, Diagnosis, and Further Steps toward Their Protection. Sustainability 2023, 15, 8255. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15108255

AMA Style

Romero-Mariscal G, Garcia-Chevesich PA, Morales-Paredes L, Arenazas-Rodriguez A, Ticona-Quea J, Vanzin G, Sharp JO. Peruvian Wetlands: National Survey, Diagnosis, and Further Steps toward Their Protection. Sustainability. 2023; 15(10):8255. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15108255

Chicago/Turabian Style

Romero-Mariscal, Giuliana, Pablo A. Garcia-Chevesich, Lino Morales-Paredes, Armando Arenazas-Rodriguez, Juana Ticona-Quea, Gary Vanzin, and Jonathan O. Sharp. 2023. "Peruvian Wetlands: National Survey, Diagnosis, and Further Steps toward Their Protection" Sustainability 15, no. 10: 8255. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15108255

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