Changes in the Regional Development of Romania (2000–2019), Measured with a Multidimensional PEESH Index
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- (1)
- To construct a multidimensional index for measuring socio-economic development in Romania with a territorial profile, which is complex enough not to depend on the variation of one or more simple development indicators. In addition, this multidimensional index should integrate the previous national and international experiences with multidimensional indices for similar purposes. Thus, this index should be relevant and valid for a longer period of time.
- (2)
- To study the evolution of NUTS3 territorial differences in Romania, in the development dimension, with special reference to the changes that have occurred over time, between the years 2000 and 2019.
- (3)
- To identify the factors that have led to the more accelerated development of some territorial areas compared to others.
2. Theoretical Considerations
2.1. Literature Review and Conceptualization
2.2. Romanian Regional Development: Previous Methods and Analyses
2.3. Why a New Multidimensional Index for Measuring Socio-Economic Development from a Regional Perspective?
3. Methodology
- (1)
- How and by which dimensions and indicators can we construct a multidimensional index for studying socio-economic development and territorial differences in Romania for the years 2000 and 2019, given the criticisms of the HDI and other reflections in the recent literature on multidimensional composite indexes?
- (2)
- How have Romanian counties differentiated on the basis of a multidimensional development index and by its dimensions, and what changes can be identified in the social and economic field a decade after EU accession, compared to the pre-accession period (2000–2019)?
- (3)
- Which of the development factors in the period under analysis (2000–2019) have contributed most to the social and economic development in Romanian counties, and how can the differences between counties be delimited from the analysis in this time perspective (2000–2019)?
3.1. Data Sources and Analysis
3.2. Construction of the Population, Economic, Education, Social, and Health Development Index (PEESH DI)
3.3. Multivariate Analysis of the Development Patterns in Romania (2000–2019)
4. Results
4.1. The State of Regional Development in Romania, Based on the PEESH DI and Its Sub-Indices
4.2. The Linear OLS Regression Model for Explaining the Main Sources of Development between the Years 2000 and 2019
5. Discussion and Policy Recommendations
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Rotated Factors | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. Economy, Labor, and Health Infrastructure | 2. Wellbeing Locative and Migration | 3. Population Dynamics | 4. Accessibility-mobility (Territorial) | 5. Population Employed (Non-Agricultural) | 6. Health—Long Life | |
| 0.852 | |||||
| 0.837 | 0.398 | 0.289 | |||
| 0.806 | 0.283 | ||||
| 0.793 | −0.343 | ||||
| 0.790 | |||||
| 0.778 | 0.387 | ||||
| 0.778 | 0.441 | ||||
| 0.776 | 0.529 | ||||
| 0.739 | 0.478 | 0.341 | |||
| 0.722 | 0.469 | 0.251 | 0.347 | ||
| 0.718 | 0.471 | 0.360 | |||
| 0.718 | 0.564 | ||||
| 0.713 | |||||
| 0.709 | 0.466 | 0.351 | |||
| 0.520 | |||||
| 0.894 | |||||
| 0.870 | −0.252 | ||||
| 0.476 | 0.553 | −0.276 | |||
| 0.534 | 0.385 | 0.456 | |||
| −0.286 | −0.508 | −0.369 | −0.271 | ||
| −0.284 | −0.850 | ||||
| −0.375 | −0.276 | −0.703 | −0.310 | ||
| 0.272 | 0.439 | 0.691 | 0.461 | ||
| 0.583 | −0.377 | ||||
| 0.502 | 0.724 | ||||
| 0.503 | 0.723 | ||||
| −0.625 | |||||
| −0.525 | |||||
| −0.925 | |||||
| 0.563 | 0.707 | ||||
| −0.623 | |||||
Explained % of Variance | 31.870 | 15.685 | 10.713 | 10.142 | 6.433 | 4.527 |
SUB-INDEXES (2000) | PEESH Development Index | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
County Rank | Population Dynamics | Health and Life | Housing and Living Conditions | Education | Economy and Labor Market | |
| −1.165 | 2.508 | 3.195 | 2.702 | 5.491 | 3.720 |
| −1.085 | 2.955 | 1.284 | 1.684 | 0.731 | 1.790 |
| −0.529 | 1.583 | 1.543 | 0.552 | 0.641 | 1.170 |
| 0.533 | 0.295 | 2.023 | 0.950 | 0.966 | 1.100 |
| 0.369 | 0.847 | 1.525 | 1.097 | 0.131 | 0.930 |
| 0.607 | −0.098 | 1.503 | 0.507 | 1.005 | 0.750 |
| −0.316 | 0.580 | 0.415 | 0.719 | 0.349 | 0.550 |
| 0.334 | 0.666 | 1.174 | 0.058 | 0.165 | 0.530 |
| −0.227 | −0.193 | 0.040 | 1.765 | 0.290 | 0.490 |
| −0.873 | 0.793 | −0.336 | 1.274 | −0.134 | 0.440 |
| 1.335 | 1.929 | −0.158 | −0.303 | 0.339 | 0.400 |
| −1.569 | 0.397 | 0.734 | 0.020 | 0.015 | 0.390 |
| 0.000 | 1.064 | 0.439 | −0.403 | 0.338 | 0.380 |
| −0.060 | 0.132 | 0.270 | 0.807 | 0.136 | 0.350 |
| −0.610 | −0.519 | 0.310 | 0.635 | 0.754 | 0.340 |
| −0.146 | 0.335 | 0.468 | 0.237 | −0.226 | 0.220 |
| −0.408 | 0.285 | −0.728 | 1.153 | −0.219 | 0.130 |
| 0.508 | 0.537 | 0.493 | −0.465 | −0.091 | 0.110 |
| 0.729 | 0.784 | 0.615 | −0.841 | −0.275 | 0.050 |
| −0.748 | 0.047 | 0.122 | 0.233 | −0.442 | 0.020 |
| 0.290 | 0.130 | −0.611 | 0.550 | −0.046 | −0.020 |
| −0.799 | −0.160 | −0.791 | 1.055 | −0.607 | −0.110 |
| 0.805 | −0.447 | 0.432 | −0.409 | 0.027 | −0.130 |
| 2.272 | −0.054 | −0.193 | −0.643 | −0.138 | −0.380 |
| −0.867 | −0.552 | −0.764 | 0.282 | −0.583 | −0.390 |
| 0.120 | −0.379 | −0.768 | 0.231 | −0.638 | −0.430 |
| 0.973 | −0.934 | −0.311 | −0.514 | 0.231 | −0.440 |
| −0.381 | −0.722 | −1.008 | 0.284 | −0.394 | −0.480 |
| 0.536 | −0.660 | −0.765 | 0.063 | −0.365 | −0.490 |
| 1.101 | −0.845 | 0.091 | −1.076 | −0.325 | −0.610 |
| 0.830 | −0.695 | −0.479 | −0.533 | −0.496 | −0.620 |
| −2.313 | −0.800 | −1.072 | −0.309 | −0.647 | −0.630 |
| 0.390 | −0.797 | −0.362 | −0.540 | −0.646 | −0.630 |
| 1.455 | −0.363 | −0.400 | −0.892 | −0.557 | −0.650 |
| 0.519 | −0.538 | −0.802 | −1.013 | −0.433 | −0.750 |
| 1.409 | −0.727 | −0.938 | −0.764 | −0.322 | −0.790 |
| 0.688 | −0.002 | −1.231 | −0.958 | −0.858 | −0.840 |
| −1.735 | −1.412 | −0.593 | −1.698 | −0.019 | −0.870 |
| −0.282 | −1.163 | −0.840 | −0.727 | −0.701 | −0.890 |
| 1.140 | −0.592 | −1.419 | −1.020 | −0.898 | −1.090 |
| −0.745 | −1.546 | −1.017 | −1.594 | −0.773 | −1.250 |
| −2.084 | −1.669 | −1.091 | −2.155 | −0.775 | −1.370 |
SUB-INDEXES (2019) | PEESH Development Index | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
County Rank | Population Dynamics | Health and Life | Housing and Living Conditions | Education | Economy and Labor Market | |
| 0.607 | 3.269 | 2.445 | 3.605 | 5.090 | 3.150 |
| 0.357 | 2.412 | 1.352 | 2.057 | 1.461 | 1.840 |
| 0.803 | 1.604 | 1.606 | 0.962 | 1.345 | 1.390 |
| 0.772 | 0.069 | 1.667 | 1.003 | 0.935 | 0.940 |
| 0.694 | 0.443 | 1.143 | 0.619 | 0.652 | 0.760 |
| 2.087 | 1.418 | −0.292 | 0.343 | 0.048 | 0.660 |
| 0.396 | −0.175 | 1.379 | 0.702 | 0.525 | 0.630 |
| −1.055 | 0.800 | 1.093 | 0.508 | −0.031 | 0.570 |
| 0.298 | 1.475 | 0.497 | −0.192 | 0.136 | 0.550 |
| 0.297 | 0.589 | 0.542 | 0.410 | 0.435 | 0.510 |
| −0.463 | 0.278 | 0.329 | 0.573 | 0.549 | 0.330 |
| −0.540 | −0.112 | 0.062 | 1.293 | 0.290 | 0.330 |
| −0.695 | −0.191 | 0.511 | 0.740 | 0.504 | 0.270 |
| 0.193 | 0.593 | 0.656 | −0.513 | −0.263 | 0.210 |
| −0.456 | 0.860 | −0.614 | 0.616 | −0.431 | 0.180 |
| 0.184 | 0.758 | 0.439 | −0.657 | −0.400 | 0.140 |
| 1.005 | 0.014 | 0.319 | −0.202 | −0.036 | 0.140 |
| −0.457 | 0.629 | −0.639 | 0.563 | −0.258 | 0.100 |
| −0.759 | 0.685 | −0.753 | 0.412 | −0.004 | 0.030 |
| −0.102 | −0.748 | 0.691 | −0.054 | 0.514 | −0.010 |
| 0.094 | −0.367 | −0.024 | 0.249 | −0.565 | −0.070 |
| −1.493 | −0.006 | −0.267 | 0.623 | −0.353 | −0.080 |
| 0.797 | −0.531 | 0.094 | −0.340 | −0.144 | −0.150 |
| −1.047 | −0.172 | 0.676 | −0.524 | −0.434 | −0.160 |
| 2.606 | −1.435 | 1.532 | −1.832 | 0.495 | −0.210 |
| 0.705 | −0.894 | 0.389 | −0.515 | −0.187 | −0.240 |
| 1.966 | −0.693 | −0.566 | −0.394 | −0.438 | −0.300 |
| 0.002 | −0.615 | −0.285 | −0.315 | −0.238 | −0.370 |
| −1.178 | −0.289 | −0.763 | 0.283 | −0.586 | −0.390 |
| 0.498 | −0.820 | −0.463 | −0.378 | −0.413 | −0.460 |
| 0.309 | −0.579 | −0.511 | −0.530 | −0.302 | −0.460 |
| −0.090 | −0.526 | −0.450 | −0.617 | −0.357 | −0.500 |
| −1.377 | −0.165 | −1.586 | 0.435 | −0.628 | −0.560 |
| −0.072 | −0.650 | −0.656 | −0.706 | −0.434 | −0.620 |
| −0.896 | −0.216 | −1.189 | −0.231 | −0.832 | −0.630 |
| 0.581 | −0.489 | −1.575 | −0.601 | −0.638 | −0.750 |
| −0.813 | −0.938 | −0.681 | −0.722 | −0.462 | −0.800 |
| −0.388 | −1.213 | −1.041 | −1.153 | −0.840 | −1.090 |
| 0.999 | −0.875 | −1.777 | −1.312 | −1.015 | −1.110 |
| −2.523 | −0.507 | −1.236 | −1.215 | −0.797 | −1.190 |
| −0.667 | −1.189 | −1.047 | −1.452 | −0.918 | −1.210 |
| −1.177 | −1.501 | −1.004 | −1.540 | −0.977 | −1.380 |
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Sub-Index Name | Variable Name (Unit) | Abbreviations | Mean | SD | Min | Max |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Population dynamics | Rate of natural increase (‰) | Nat. increase | −3.12 | 2.51 | −9.40 | 2.30 |
Net migration rate (‰) | Net migration | 0.32 | 6.65 | −6.93 | 30.25 | |
Ageing index (%) | Ageing | 112.20 | 21.38 | 75.38 | 177.01 | |
Temporary emigration rate (‰) | Temp. emigration | 20.23 | 12.62 | 2.63 | 62.34 | |
Economy and labor market | GDP per capita * | GDP/capita | 32,676.3 | 14,825.2 | 15,927.9 | 99,216.3 |
Net employment ratio—20–64 years (%) | Employment | 67.13 | 9.13 | 47.80 | 97.70 | |
People employed in industry (%) | Ind. employment | 24.13 | 5.99 | 11.21 | 36.59 | |
People employed in services (%) | Serv. employment | 49.93 | 9.08 | 36.10 | 87.85 | |
Unemployment rate (%) | Unemployment | 3.42 | 1.72 | 0.40 | 7.50 | |
Education | Tertiary education rate (%) | Tert. education | 12.18 | 4.82 | 6.80 | 33.66 |
Gross school enrolment rate (%) | School enrolment | 82.58 | 7.06 | 67.10 | 99.60 | |
Graduation rate of secondary education (%) | Sec. graduation | 68.30 | 7.52 | 39.80 | 79.80 | |
Social conditions and housing | Average floor area per person | Floor | 19.34 | 2.33 | 14.32 | 28.85 |
Share of households with access to piped water (%) | Water | 63.13 | 15.55 | 36.80 | 96.80 | |
Share of households with access to sewage networks (%) ** | Sewage | 61.43 | 15.56 | 30.50 | 96.60 | |
Share of households with a kitchen area (%) ** | Kitchen | 83.26 | 7.05 | 66.80 | 96.20 | |
Share of households with a fixed bath (%) ** | Bath | 57.99 | 15.19 | 29.80 | 95.20 | |
Share of households with a central heating system (%) ** | Heating | 38.76 | 14.74 | 16.30 | 91.30 | |
Health and life | Share of physicians per 1000 persons (‰) | Physicians | 1.40 | 1.00 | 0.50 | 4.58 |
Medical sanitary staff per 1000 persons (‰) | Sanitations | 3.94 | 1.01 | 1.64 | 7.25 | |
Share of hospital beds per 1000 persons (‰) | Hosp. beds | 5.18 | 1.48 | 2.91 | 9.54 | |
Life expectancy at birth | Life expect. | 75.71 | 1.30 | 73.61 | 80.83 |
Sub-Index (by PCA) | Component Indicators | Component Scores | Component Scores |
---|---|---|---|
2000 | 2019 | ||
Population dynamics | Natural increase | 0.841 | 0.897 |
Net migration | −0.633 | 0.769 | |
Ageing | −0.919 | −0.888 | |
Temporary emigration | 0.734 | 0.495 | |
KMO Total variance explained | 0.66 62.2% | 0.70 60.7% | |
Economy and labor market | GDP/capita | 0.910 | 0.925 |
Net employment | 0.271 | 0.771 | |
Industrial employment | 0.891 | 0.886 | |
Services employment | 0.945 | 0.936 | |
Unemployment | −0.345 | −0.493 | |
KMO Total variance explained | 0.65 55.0% | 0.60 57.0% | |
Education | Tertiary education | 0.792 | 0.821 |
School enrolment | 0.908 | 0.821 | |
Secondary graduation | 0.928 | 0.610 | |
KMO Total variance explained | 0.67 77.0% | 0.61 57% | |
Social conditions and housing | Floor area/person | 0.408 | 0.537 |
Piped water | 0.978 | 0.979 | |
Sewage networks | 0.981 | 0.978 | |
Kitchen area | 0.591 | 0.842 | |
Fixed bath | 0.978 | 0.985 | |
Central heating system | 0.869 | 0.895 | |
KMO Total variance explained | 0.75 69.1% | 0.86 78.0% | |
Health and life | Physicians | 0.923 | 0.895 |
Medical sanitary staff | 0.891 | 0.874 | |
Hospital beds | 0.922 | 0.947 | |
Life expectancy | 0.322 | 0.592 | |
KMO Total variance explained | 0.75 64.9% | 0.74 70.2% |
PEESH DI | Population | Health | Education | Housing | Economy | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2000 | 2019 | 2000 | 2019 | 2000 | 2019 | 2000 | 2019 | 2000 | 2019 | 2000 | 2019 | |
PEESH DI | 1 | 1 | −0.047 | 0.321 * | 0.852 ** | 0.876 ** | 0.818 ** | 0.878 ** | 0.921 ** | 0.826 ** | 0.897 ** | 0.899 ** |
Population | −0.163 | 0.321 * | 1 | 1 | −0.005 | 0.111 | −0.206 | 0.009 | −0.034 | 0.379 * | −0.137 | 0.292 |
Health | 0.848 ** | 0.876 ** | −0.005 | 0.111 | 1 | 1 | 0.649 ** | 0.801 ** | 0.697 ** | 0.537 ** | 0.604 ** | 0.708 ** |
Education | 0.818 ** | 0.878 ** | −0.191 | 0.009 | 0.674 ** | 0.801 ** | 1 | 1 | 0.612 ** | 0.556 ** | 0.618 ** | 0.788 ** |
Housing | 0.890 ** | 0.826 ** | −0.034 | 0.379 * | 0.697 ** | 0.537 ** | 0.582 ** | 0.556 ** | 1 | 1 | 0.789 ** | 0.773 ** |
Economy | 0.897 ** | 0.917 ** | −0.104 | 0.399 ** | 0.616 ** | 0.591 ** | 0.618 ** | 0.646 ** | 0.885 ** | 0.867 ** | 1 | 1 |
PEESH DI 2019 | Differentiation 2000–2019 | |||||||||
Population | Health | Education | Housing | Economy | ||||||
Net migration | 0.346 * | Physicians | 0.552 ** | Tert. education | 0.915 ** | Floor | 0.272 | GDP/capita | 0.868 ** | |
Ageing | −0.073 | Sanitations | 0.047 | School enrolment | 0.441 ** | Water | −0.183 | Employment | 0.728 ** | |
Temp. emigration | −0.198 | Hosp. beds | −0.147 | Sec. graduation | 0.369 * | Bath | −0.047 | Ind. employment | −0.547 ** | |
Life expect. | 0.499 ** | Heating | 0.326 * | Unemployment | −0.073 | |||||
Sewage | −0.090 | Serv. employment | 0.083 |
Independent Variables (Growth/Decrease between 2000–2019) | B | Standardized Beta Coefficient | Sig. | VIF |
---|---|---|---|---|
(Constant) | −2.425 | 0.005 | ||
Net migration | 0.019 | 0.146 | 0.272 | 2.993 |
Temporary emigration | 0.006 | 0.086 | 0.351 | 1.464 |
School enrolment | 0.056 | 0.354 ** | 0.012 | 3.112 |
Secondary graduation | −0.002 | −0.025 | 0.839 | 2.735 |
Employment | 0.044 | 0.508 ** | 0.000 | 1.697 |
Unemployment | −0.020 | −0.072 | 0.408 | 1.320 |
Serv. employment | 0.053 * | 0.225 * | 0.050 | 2.924 |
Floor area/person | 0.038 | 0.083 | 0.468 | 2.236 |
Fixed bath | −0.008 | −0.056 | 0.611 | 2.088 |
Physicians | 0.556 | 0.220 * | 0.041 | 1.866 |
Medical sanitary staff | −0.007 | −0.006 | 0.949 | 1.755 |
Hosp. beds | −0.162 | −0.151 | 0.245 | 2.887 |
Life expectancy | 0.159 | 0.200 * | 0.050 | 1.851 |
Adjusted R2 | 0.749 |
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Veres, V.; Benedek, J.; Török, I. Changes in the Regional Development of Romania (2000–2019), Measured with a Multidimensional PEESH Index. Sustainability 2022, 14, 14500. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142114500
Veres V, Benedek J, Török I. Changes in the Regional Development of Romania (2000–2019), Measured with a Multidimensional PEESH Index. Sustainability. 2022; 14(21):14500. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142114500
Chicago/Turabian StyleVeres, Valér, József Benedek, and Ibolya Török. 2022. "Changes in the Regional Development of Romania (2000–2019), Measured with a Multidimensional PEESH Index" Sustainability 14, no. 21: 14500. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142114500
APA StyleVeres, V., Benedek, J., & Török, I. (2022). Changes in the Regional Development of Romania (2000–2019), Measured with a Multidimensional PEESH Index. Sustainability, 14(21), 14500. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142114500