Gender Perspectives of ICT Utilization in Agriculture and Climate Response in West Africa: A Review

Abstract

This paper systematically reviewed the relevant literature to generate evidence and identify knowledge gaps on the gender perspectives of ICT use for agriculture and climate response in West Africa. It was evident from the literature that ICTs continue to form an important part of agricultural operations, climate response and agribusiness in West Africa. TV, radio and mobile phones were the most frequently used ICT platforms for receiving agricultural and climate information. Mobile phones have an added use for sales and financial transactions. There were no distinct gender differences in the use of ICTs for agriculture and climate response. However, women’s low income and limitations in controlling household financial responses were identified as significant barriers to ICT access. It was evident that ICTs may contribute to achieving gender outcomes in agriculture and climate response if an enabling environment is created for women to have access to the inputs and resources needed to implement agro-advisories. From the results obtained, there are clear indications that the gender perspectives of ICT use in agriculture and climate response has not received much research attention. The analyses identified important knowledge gaps on gender disaggregated information on the linkages among ICT use, agricultural productivity and climate adaptation indicators.

1. Introduction

1.1. Why Is ICT Utilization in Agriculture and Climate Response Important?

Agriculture continues to be the mainstay of the economies of West African states, employing more than 70% of the population. Due to its potential for pro-poor economic growth, agriculture is often cited as the major pathway to reduce poverty in Africa. This notwithstanding, climate change and its variability complicates the already daunting challenges of the sector, frustrating the current efforts to meet the food security targets of the sustainable development goals. For instance, considerable changes in temperature and rainfall patterns have caused severe and episodic droughts and destructive flooding in the sub-region, resulting in declining agricultural productivity, particularly in the arid and semi-arid regions of West Africa. In fact, the impacts of the 1970s and 1980s drought in the Sahel region that caused severe food shortages, outmigration of about 40% in some villages in Burkina Faso [1] and nearly 7% and 6% losses of water surface and vegetation cover, respectively [2], are still being realized.

The future climate projections show that by 2050, the cereal yields may reduce by 40% while the fodder-growing periods will be shortened by 20% [3]. This is as a result of a projected decline in precipitation by about 5% [3]. This may likely increase drought-induced conflicts among nomadics due to shortages in fodder of a fair nutritive quality. Moreover, flood frequency is projected to increase. According to Collins et al. [4], floods have risen by about 6 to 12 times during the last decades. It is projected that with a sea level rise of about 0.5–1 m, countries close to the coast (such as The Gambia, Ghana, Nigeria, Senegal etc.) are likely to experience frequent storms that may exceed the current coping strategies [5]. The adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices shows great promise as one mainstream opportunity for developing climate-resilient food production systems that enable the simultaneous achievement of food security as well as adaptation and mitigation co-benefits. However, this must be supported by functional extension services. With agriculture becoming more knowledge-intensive, smallholder farmers continuously demand agro-advisory services from extension agents to make informed decisions on farm management operations. Their benefits to farmers can therefore not be over-emphasized.

At present, the approach to delivering agricultural information through extension agents is poorly resourced. Due to limited personnel and logistical challenges, this traditional approach often fails to deliver as expected. E-agriculture, involving the use of digital tools such as information and communication technology (ICT) shows great promise to delivering timely agricultural information to farmers in the right format, which is also tailored to their specific needs. In business and the world of work, ICTs have always been an important contributor to growth and economic development where they are well embraced and assimilated as integral components of service delivery. In advanced countries, the use of ICTs have been fully explored in delivering agricultural education, managing farm operations and expanding agricultural enterprises. In this era of the fourth industrial revolution, agriculture in West Africa can stay competitive if smallholder farmers adopt ICTs like their counterparts in developed countries. The use of ICTs can minimize the risks associated with climate change, reduce the risk of agriculture failure and offer an important avenue for improving agricultural productivity and expanding agribusiness. The delivery of timely and accurate seasonal weather forecasts through ICT platforms can enable farmers to make informed decisions on pre-plating, planting and postharvest practices. Varying results on ICT use in West African agriculture and climate response are reported in the literature. Policy decisions on the expansion of ICT infrastructure to benefit agricultural enterprises and climate actions will require an important analysis on what ICTs are used, why they are used, the adoption factors and information on the potential barriers.

1.2. Why Does Gender Matter in ICT Utilization in Agriculture and Climate Response?

In Africa, the use of digital tools for the agricultural education of farmers and the dissemination of agricultural information and advisory services is gradually gaining popularity. The increasing penetration of mobile phones, the use of radio, televisions, audio visuals and other information delivery channels have provided important pathways for improving food security; delivering and accessing agricultural information; and sustaining successful agricultural supply chains and business [6]. For instance, the use of mobile phones for payments has improved safer and quicker financial transactions between farmers and other value chain actors [7,8]. ICTs have also presented new avenues for agriculturists and climate experts to generate, disseminate and translate weather information and, more generally, ICTs provide advisory services without the constraint of physical distance. Further, ICTs have enabled farmers to establish linkages with financial institutions, government agencies, transport services, input suppliers and producer associations and networks who are all instrumental to achieving food security and livelihood outcomes. Despite the enormous benefits and potentials of ICT use in agriculture, there are a number of factors that influence and constrain their use by farmers. Such challenging and constraining factors may even be worse for women farmers.

In most of Africa, women play significant roles and contribute to household food security. They represent about 70% of the agricultural labor force and produce more than 50% of the continents food needs [9]. This notwithstanding, substantial gender gaps in the access to agricultural inputs, land, tools and farm implements, labor and financial resources remain a challenge for most women [10]. Studies attribute such gender inequalities to culture, gender norms and the roles of women in the household [10,11]. Women spend most of their time fetching water, collecting firewood, cooking and performing other functions that limit their time investment in agricultural activities. On top of that, their low-income status and limited control of household finances and other farm resources constrain their ability to adopt innovative technologies that can improve production levels [12]. Some authors, such as McOmber et al. [13] and Gillwald et al. [14], have argued that despite an increasing mobile penetration in Africa, men are about 80% more likely to own mobile phones than women. The cultural setting of rural Africa and women’s limited control of the household’s financial resources are cited as potential causes [15]. Women are therefore likely to have limited access to extension services delivered through mobile phone platforms and hence stand a higher chance of facing climate-related risks.

To address these gender inequalities and fully exploit the potential benefits of ICT use in agriculture and climate risk management, development experts recommend that the efforts to foster innovation and a gender-inclusive digital transformation in agriculture and in climate response must drive policy decisions that promote investments in ICT for female empowerment. A critical step to stimulating such policy actions and driving investments is the generation of the necessary evidence on the gender perspectives of ICT use in agriculture. A number of publications, such as The Digitalization of African Agriculture Report by the Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation ACP-EU [16] and the World Bank’s and FAO’s publications [17] on ICT in agriculture, are significant examples of country/region-specific ICT-related interventions in African agriculture, but they leave important knowledge gaps in the gender differences and perspectives of such technologies. In addition, there seems to be a greater emphasis on and discussion about the potentials of ICTs in agriculture without substantial evidence of the results of full-scale field-testing from a gender perspective.

1.3. Objectives

In this paper, we use evidence from the literature to analyze the (1) prevalence and use of ICTs in West African agriculture; (2) determinants of ICT use in agriculture; (3) effects of ICTs on agricultural outcomes and climate response; (4) effects of ICTs on gender outcomes; and (5) barriers to ICT use in agriculture. We used the analysis of the literature to draw some important lessons and identify knowledge gaps.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Description of Literature Search

The search for literature employed the use of two search engines: the ISI Web of Science (WoS) and Scopus for literature identification. The WoS uses title search while Scopus employs a combination of the title, abstract and keywords. Search strings involved searching combinations of the keywords: agriculture, ICT and gender (

Table 1. Search keys used for literature identification in Web of Science and Scopus.

Search Item	Search Key
ICT	“information and communications technolog*” OR “ICT” OR “mobile phone” OR “telephone” OR “smartphone” OR “radio” OR “telecommunication” OR “social media” OR “newspaper” OR “internet” OR “audio visual” OR “television” OR “TV”
Agriculture	“agric*” OR “crop produc*” OR “crop produc* system” OR “food production” OR “food production system” OR “farm* system” OR “farmland” OR “farm land” OR “farm*” OR “agric* production” OR “agric* system” OR “agric technique” OR “agric* system” OR “agroecosystem” OR “agro-ecosystem” OR “agrisilvi*” OR “agroforestry” OR “livestock” OR “ruminant” OR “livestock production” OR “ livestock production system” OR “ruminant production” OR “crop-livestock” OR “animal husbandry” OR “animal production” OR “animal raising” OR “animal rearing” OR “pasture” OR “silvopast*” OR “agrosilvo*” OR “pastoral system” OR “aquac*” OR “fish” OR “fish farm*” OR “fish production” OR “fish production system” OR “integrated aquaculture*” OR “aquaforestry” OR “fish pond” OR “fish tank”
West Africa	“west Africa” OR “benin” OR “burkina faso” OR “cape verde” OR “cabo verde” OR “côte d’Ivoire” OR “ivory coast” OR “gambia” OR “ghana” OR “guinea” OR “ guinea-bissau” OR “guinea bissau” OR “liberia” OR “mali” OR “mauritania” OR “niger” OR “nigeria” OR “senegal” OR “ sierra leone” OR “ são tomé and príncipe” OR “togo”
Gender	“gender” OR “women” OR “female” OR “male” OR “men” OR “sex” OR “gender empowerment” OR “women empowerment” OR “gender responsiv*” OR “gender sensitiv*” OR “gender transformat*” OR “inclusiv*” OR “social inclus*” OR “gender equality” OR “gender inclusive*” OR “gender equity”
Climate change	“climat* change” OR “climat* variability” OR “drought” OR “flood” OR “adapt*” OR “mitigat*” OR “resilien*” OR “vulnerab*”

), to identify literature specific to West Africa. The search was restricted to peer reviewed scientific literature (articles, books, reviews, book chapters, conference proceedings and other editorial materials) published from 1990 to September 2021. The search was narrowed to English and French language publications.

2.2. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

The initial search yielded 86 documents from the WoS and 110 documents from Scopus, which were exported into MS Excel for screening. After removing the duplications, 155 papers remained. Out of the 155 papers, 62 papers were included in the analysis after satisfying the relevant criteria for selection (

Table 2. Criteria for selecting and rejecting literature for analysis.

Criteria for Inclusion	Criteria for Exclusion
1. Publication is in English or French	Publication in other languages
2. Publication is focused on ICTs for agriculture and/or climate change	Publication is focused on areas/sectors rather than agriculture and/or climate change
3. Publication is conducted in West Africa	Publication is conducted in countries outside West Africa
4. Publication has sufficient information to analyze data relevant to the focal areas of this paper	Publication has limited details to back data analysis

) based on the review of the titles, abstract and full content.

A detailed review of the selected papers was conducted with a gender lens. We reviewed the ICT contributions to gender outcomes based on how they improve the economic and social empowerment of women. The indicators of economic and social empowerment used were based on the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) [18]:

• Economic empowerment: the contribution of ICT to an improved/increased (i) income; (ii) ability to purchase land; (iii) ability to purchase farm inputs; (iv) ability to purchase personal assets (mobile phone, clothes, household items etc.); (v) ability to pay utility fees; (vi) ability to pay school fees; (vii) ability to access health facilities; (viii) ability to lend money to others; (ix) ability to make a remittance to family in other locations; (x) and ability to access credit.
• Social empowerment: the contribution of ICT to an improved/increased (i) ability to control financial resources in the household; (ii) involvement in major household decisions; (iii) relative freedom from domination within the family; (iv) ability to access agricultural services; (v) self-image; (vi) confidence to lead a group/association; (vii) confidence to contest for leadership roles; (viii) freedom of expression; (ix) and ability to take initiatives and make personal choices.

To understand the ICT contributions to agricultural outcomes, we reviewed the literature obtained to analyze how they relate ICTs to an increased yield of major farm outputs, a reduction in losses of major farm outputs, an increased resource use efficiency, increased farm profits and the uptake or adoption of agricultural practices and technologies.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Distribution of Literature

Table 1 shows the distribution of literature based on geographies, publication type, subject areas and journals. Based on geographical distribution, Nigeria recorded the highest percentage (44%) of the literature identified. Most of the publications came from West Africa, probably due to the search focus of the literature. Among West African countries, the least (1%) amount of publications came from Burkina Faso, Guinea and Côte d’Ivoire (

Table 3. Distribution of literature based on geographies, publication type, subject areas and journals.

Top Five Countries in the World	Publications from West African Countries	Publication Types	Top 5 Subject Areas	Top Five Journals
Nigeria (44%) Ghana (17%) United States of America (16%) Mali (6%) United Kingdom (6%)	Nigeria (44%) Ghana (17%) Mali (6%) Benin (5%) Senegal (4%) Niger (2%) Burkina Faso (1%) Côte d’Ivoire (1%) Guinea (1%)	Article (92%) Book chapter (4%) Conference papers (4%)	Social sciences (58%) Agricultural and Biological Sciences (44%) Environmental Science (16%) Economics and Finance (11%) Arts and Humanities (9%) Medicine (9%)	Journal of agricultural Extension (10%) Library Philosophy and Practice (6%) Journal of Agricultural and Food (4.5%)Information Information Development (4%) Development in Practice (3%) Tropical Agriculture (3%)

N = 155.

). Most of the publications (92%) were journal articles and were highly (58%) published in the Social Science domain. The identified literature came from over 50 journals. The Journal of Agricultural Extension (10%) recorded the highest medium of publication. This seems to imply that ICT use in West Africa may be more focused on agricultural extension than other areas in the agricultural sector.

From the results obtained, there are clear indications that the gender perspectives of ICT use in agriculture and climate response has not received much research attention. One would expect that for a region very vulnerable to climate change, with relatively high gender inequality and a high dependence on agriculture, the role of ICT innovations in building climate-resilient agricultural systems and empowering women would be an important part of research. The publication records from 1990 was under five and remained flat until between 2009 and 2012 (Figure 1). It is, however, evident from the curve that publication numbers are gradually increasing (Figure 1). This trend may be related to the increasing recognition of the relevance of ICTs in multiple sectors, including agriculture.

ICTs such as mobile phones have seen a tremendous growth in Africa over the past five years. The latest GSMA report records that as of 2020, about 495 million people (representing 46% of the region’s population) had subscribed to mobile services in Sub-Saharan Africa. This was about a 20 million addition compared to the data recorded in 2019 [19]. Advancing research to understand the importance of such tremendous growth on the agricultural sector and how it improves the empowerment of vulnerable populations (including women) will be crucial.

3.2. Gender Perspectives of ICT Use

3.2.1. Prevalence and Use of ICTs

As mentioned, 62 publications were relevant to this analysis. The results revealed that mobile phones, television and radio were the most widely used ICT-based tools in West African agriculture [9,20,21,22]. This was reported by 98% (n = 62) of the literature obtained. Others, such as newspapers, magazines, animated videos, the internet and social media, were also reported [22,23,24,25] by 35% of the literature. ICTs were used by farmers in all major agriculture sub-sectors (crop, livestock and fish). In crop production, ICTs were mainly used for accessing seasonal weather information, receiving market alerts, cash transactions and accessing information on agricultural inputs and suppliers [26,27,28,29]. In livestock production, ICTs were used for accessing information on pest management practices, the movement of grazing animals, weather, sale and marketing of livestock and source of animal feed (e.g., [25,26]). In fish farming, ICTs were used for exchanging and sharing information on the construction of ponds, where to source fingerlings, the commercialization of fish, disease treatment and accessing weather information [24,30,31]. Key similarities among the three sub-sectors were the use of ICTs for accessing weather information and agribusiness.

Among the three most widely used ICT-based tools, radio seemed to be the most popularly used ICT-based platform among West African farmers, particularly in Ghana and Nigeria. Factors such as the easiness of movement, cost-effectiveness, low maintenance costs and access to information in the local language were cited as the most influential in its patronage [32]. About 85% of the papers reported that radios were mainly used for delivering or accessing weather information, market information and agro-advisory extension services (e.g., [27,33]). Other authors such as Osei et al. [34] and Akinbile and Oyebode [35] also found radio to be an effective channel for delivering entrepreneurial information and disseminating information on soil conservation, climate risk mitigation practices and agro-chemicals.

Apart from radio platforms, a number of studies (88%) also pointed to the increasing penetration of mobile phone technologies in rural farming communities in West Africa (e.g., [28,36,37]). The papers revealed farmers use mobile phones for making payments for agricultural inputs and receiving cash from the sale of farm produce (e.g., [38,39]). Apart from financial transactions, a number of studies (93%) attested to the increased popularity of mobile phones for delivering and receiving weather and market information (e.g., [15,27,28]) either as SMS or voice alerts. A number of good practices on mobile phone use for delivering and accessing weather and market information in agriculture are reported in the literature. In northern Ghana, the CGIAR Research program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) worked with a private ICT company (Esoko) to deliver climate information services and market alerts through mobile phones to more than 300,000 farmers. This innovation has been sustained through a public–private partnership business model [40,41], involving government institutions and a local telecommunication company. The information received by farmers is used to make critical pre-planting, during planting and postharvest decisions and other farm management operations. In Nigeria, an e-wallet system which was introduced in 2012 by the Federal Government enabled the distribution of agricultural inputs to farmers via mobile phone platforms. This e-wallet platform has not only improved access to agricultural inputs but also subsidies for the purchase of seeds and fertilizers from input suppliers [26,29]. Several millions of farmers have reportedly subscribed to this e-wallet system, which is still operational in Nigeria. Similarly, ICT infrastructures, including internet connectivity made available through satellites, markedly assisted in improving a farmer’s access to agricultural information, including inputs and output market information [33] in Ago-Are, Oyo State, Nigeria. Moreover, a few number of papers (2%) reported a reliance on mobile phones by farmers for receiving information on pest management (e.g., [25]) and security information to mitigate the incessant conflicts between crop growers and nomadics [42]. According to Anadozie et al. [42], information on the movement of grazing cattle is received through mobile phone platforms to minimize the destruction of croplands, which is the major cause of clashes between farmers and herders in most of West Africa.

Moreover, the results showed that the use of animated videos projected on TV screens or shared on smartphones have played instrumental roles in agricultural extension services in West Africa. In Niger, Bello-Bravo and Pittendrigh [25] reported the use of videos for providing information on pest management practices, while Bentley et al. [43] showed that rice farmers in Benin received varying agricultural information via video streaming for the adoption of relevant agricultural technologies and practices. Bentley et al. [43] reported that disseminating agriculture information using videos allowed an easy remembrance of technologies, even after 5 years of demonstrations.

From a gender perspective, very few (2%) studies provided gender disaggregated information on the use of ICTs for agriculture and climate response (e.g., [15,27,44,45]). Generally, the literature pointed to similarities in the use of ICTs among men and women for achieving agriculture and climate outcomes. The demand for ICT use in agriculture and climate response was also ungendered. In the Abia State of Nigeria, Umeh & Nwachukwu [45] reported that with increasing climate change manifestations, rural women were in demand for timely climate information through agricultural extension or mass media. Similar observations were made for men and women in other parts of Nigeria, Senegal and Ghana [15,27,32]. They noted that weather advisory services delivered through ICT-driven virtual platforms were ideal for managing the climate risk among men and women farmers. Meanwhile, in Benue, Nigeria, Odiaka and Obinne [46] found a higher use of radio, television, mobile phones and newspapers among male farmers, while internet use was higher among females. Moreover, the preference for ICTs among men and women may be context specific. Issues of affordability, the type of agricultural innovation, farming type, and whether an agricultural business is engaged and has the capacity to use such tools will play a crucial role. The development of ICTs for agriculture and climate response may therefore assess the needs and determinants of adoption among men and women for specific geographies.

3.2.2. Determinants of ICT Use

About 35% of the literature identified in this study related ICT use and adoption to several socioeconomic and demographic factors. Generally, the literature revealed that in addition to gender, socio-demographic factors such as income status, age, land ownership, farm size, off-farm employment, access to extension and level of education were significant determinants of ICT use for agriculture and climate response under different geographies and contexts [21,28,47]. Although varying results are to be expected under different contexts, gender was statistically significant in 88% of the papers, accentuating the relevance of mainstreaming gender considerations in the ICT developments for agriculture and climate response. A few of the studies, such as Ankrah et al. [48], found that access to ICT was ungendered due to the limited use of such technologies in the study area for agricultural activities.

The majority of the studies confirming gender as a significant determinant of ICT use and adoption are consistent with the findings of several researchers that also cite gender as an influential demographic factor for the adoption of agricultural technologies and practices [13,49]. From the literature reviewed, male farmers were found to be higher adopters of ICTs than their female counterparts. This was confirmed by 88% of the papers obtained. The interplay of several factors, such as a limited access to and control of financial resources; limited capacity in terms of education and ability to use ICTs; limited access to land; inability to purchase ICT-based platforms such as mobile phones, radio and TV; and cultural roles were the most recognized constraints to women’s ability to adopt ICTs. In Ghana, Partey et al. [15] observed that although women farmers acknowledged the significance of mobile phones to their farming activities, their low-income levels posed as a major constraint to their ability to acquire them. As men mostly control the financial resources of the household, they are often the ones who purchase farm tools and ICT devices to use and share with their spouses or female members of the household. For this reason, the unwillingness of husbands to share such tools with spouses and other females within the household will limit their ability to access agricultural information, extension and climate information services delivered through these platforms.

3.2.3. Barriers to ICT Use

Despite the importance of ICTs in agriculture and climate response, a number of barriers constrain their use among smallholder farmers. Most of the barriers reported were linked to mobile phone use. The barriers common to all major ICT devices (mobile phones, radio and television) included a lack of and an erratic electricity supply; poor network coverage; and a high maintenance cost [9,22]. The following were specific to mobile phone use: high illiteracy and lack of ICT skills among farmers; poor connectivity; language barrier; high call charges; and high purchasing and maintenance cost [30,47]. The results also showed that the barriers to ICT use were not related to only issues associated with the ICT devices alone, but an interaction with other factors such as a low income, lack of awareness on climate change, lack of land ownership, limited access to extension agents and mistrust of agriculture and weather information [22,50]. For instance, it was reported that while farmers acknowledge the importance of agricultural and weather information delivered through these ICT devices, the inability of farmers to implement some of the recommendations that involve financial inputs (such as the purchase of improved seeds, fertilizers, or hiring of labor) caused disinterest among farmers [28]. In addition, the lack of extension agents to offer operational skills capacity for farmers, limits their interest to acquire ICTs for agriculture information [50].

From a gender perspective, few (5%) of the papers provided gender disaggregated information. Similar to the results on ICT use; all the barriers identified were common to men and women. Meanwhile, as with most agricultural technologies, the literature demonstrated that women’s limited control of financial resources, limited access to credit and farm inputs, a lack of access to land and labor constrain their ability to acquire ICT devices (particularly mobile phones). Partey et al. [15] observed that in some parts of northern Ghana, women had to rely on their husbands to purchase mobile devices and agricultural inputs. The willingness of their husbands therefore determines whether they will have access or not. Barriers related to cultural norms were also evident. For instance, in the e-wallet system of Nigeria, Uduji et al. [51] reported that married women were less likely to participate due to cultural obstacles and the need for permission from husbands.

3.2.4. ICTs and Gender Outcomes in Agriculture and Climate Response

Although gender is an important area of Africa’s development priorities, its relation to ICT in agriculture and climate response is poorly researched. From the literature obtained, only 3% related ICT use to gender empowerment indicators, and varying results were reported. In a study conducted by Tijjani et al. [9] in Rivers State, Nigeria, they found that ICT use empowers women by providing entrepreneurial opportunity, breaking isolation, enabling linkage and access to agricultural inputs and markets, allowing sales and marketing of agricultural produce and improving income and savings. This clearly demonstrates that improving women’s access to information can enable their empowerment. The findings are also consistent with reports from South Africa [52], South Asia [53] and India [54]. The Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations also indicates that ICTs such as mobile phones, TV and radio markedly improve agricultural productivity and the farm returns of rural women involved in the agricultural value chain [17]. Contrary to Tijjani et al. [9], Adeyeye [32] reported that where the adoption of ICT is the most essential tool for agriculture, it may widen the empowerment gap between male and female decision makers. The author revealed that if the major drivers of gender inequality in technology adoption persist, then women’s poor capabilities, limited control of farm resources and their limited ownership of and control of decision-making on technologies may frustrate the efforts to empower them through ICT. This contradicts FAO [17] and the United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women (UNDAW) who had indicated that ICTs could play an instrumental role in female empowerment as they can enhance economic operations [55]. Most African women in agriculture (especially vegetable growers) are very entrepreneurial. By using ICT, they stand the chance to expand their agricultural business through improved sales and marketing. Considering the high vulnerability of women to climate change and the opportunity for accessing climate information through ICT platforms, providing the enabling environment for women to have access to ICTs could build their adaptive capacity. In addition, allowing equitable access to ICTs will help women acquire information on the best agricultural practices tailored to their needs. The above will culminate into improved agricultural productivity, which can enhance food security and the income of women.

3.3. Effects of ICTs on Agriculture and Climate-Related Outcomes

Generally, the results showed very limited studies (4.3%) linking the use of ICTs to agricultural outcomes. We looked at agricultural outcomes in relation to an increase in the yield of major farm outputs, a reduction in losses, increased resource use efficiency and the uptake or adoption of farming practices and technologies. It was evident that the farmers’ quest to increase agricultural productivity, improve the adaptation to climate change and improve the commercialization of major farm outputs were the major motivations contributing to ICT demand and use [56,57]. Below are a few excerpts from the literature where ICTs were linked to farm outcomes and the uptake/adoption of technologies:

• Benin: in Benin, a study by Nonvide [58] related higher yields of rice to ownership of a radio or TV. He reported that radio or TV ownership improved access to information on agronomic practices as well as input and output market information.
• Nigeria: in Nigeria, a survey involving 1200 subscribers of the e-wallet system linked the ICT-based system to an increased use and adoption of improved seeds by farmers across six geopolitical zones to boost food security [51]. Similarly, Ndaghu et al. [59] revealed that the dissemination of agricultural information via radio increased the adoption of improved practices for maize production in Yola, Adamawa State, Nigeria.
• Niger: in Niger, a study conducted by Aker and Ksoll [60] revealed that farmers who had access to and were trained on the use of mobile phones in an adult education program were able to choose and diversify the production of marginal cash crops better than those who were not trained. The study also revealed that famers who had access to mobile phones and were trained on their use were more likely to sell their crops due to access to market information.
• Mali: in Mali, Dzanku et al. [61] reported that voice messages delivered through mobile phones significantly improved the harvesting time of crops, reduced on-farm cereal losses, increased the uptake of improved grain storage technology and increased the likelihood of pre-harvest sales contracts. Unlike the study by Nonvide [58] in Benin, they found no significant influence of the voice messages to increased yields and profits.
• Ghana: the use of WCIS significantly increased the adoption of water management and multiple cropping practices by 6.8% and 5.6%, respectively [62]. Addo et al. [63] cited radio as one of the most important sources of information on maize storage against pests such as Prostephanus truncatus in the Volta region of Ghana. In addition, a study conducted by Boateng et al. [39] in Ghana showed that farmers and fishermen who used mobile phones for micro-trading activities reduced production costs and had an improved relationship with their business partners [39].

In general, the papers confirmed that the dissemination of weather information through ICTs improved the farmers’ knowledge and their awareness of climate change [15,57]. From a gender perspective, a limited number of papers (2%) reported gender differences and/or similarities on the effects of ICTs on agriculture and climate-related outcomes. For instance, Twumasi et al. [24] found that the gender of the household head was a significant determinant of farm productivity. According to their study involving 131 fish farms households in the Ashanti and Bono East regions of Ghana, women farmers were more likely to experience a greater impact of internet use on farm productivity than males due to the division of labor within the household. They reported that unlike women, men spend less time on the farm due to their increased time investment in off-farm activities.

3.4. Lessons and Knowledge Gaps

3.4.1. Lessons

The analyses in this paper are based on 62 relevant literature from the search. Arguably, this could be little to substantiate the evidence this paper wishes to generate. However, the consistencies in the data, trends and results provide the necessary evidence of the real situation of the gender perspective of ICT use in agriculture and climate response in West Africa. From the results obtained, there are clear indications that agricultural information is crucial for accelerating progress towards food security targets and enhancing rural development through social and economic change. Countries in West Africa would have to prioritize the investment in improving access to and the use of agricultural information to farmers who are the major workforce for economic development. It was evident from the literature that farmers in West Africa have increased the need for information on agricultural inputs, weather, prices, markets, pest and disease control, information on new practices and technologies, the demand of farm produce, as well as new practices and technologies [9]. However, the most prioritized were weather/climate information and market/business-related information. In West Africa, climate and markets seem to be the main drivers of changing agricultural practices [64]. It is therefore not surprising that the use of ICTs for climate information and markets was top among the various uses in West African agriculture. These results imply that developing and expanding the use of ICT will provide a significant avenue to improving climate change adaptation and enhancing agricultural business in West Africa.

The information gathered from the literature suggest that smallholder farmers in West Africa consider ICTs as important assets for their agricultural activities. Mobile phones, radio and televisions were top of the ICT devices used. However, major limitations in ICT infrastructure exist and continue to pose challenges to the smooth access to information by farmers. Policy actions and investments towards the development of ICT infrastructure must be prioritized in West Africa. This is not only relevant to the agricultural sector but other sectors that are crucial for the social and economic development and transformation of countries. Moreover, the high illiteracy and low ICT skills among farmers also make it crucial to make essential training available to smallholder farmers so they can access relevant agricultural and climate information and translate it into action on their farms. Considering that other barriers to ICT adoption persists, it will be important to allow both traditional and ICT-based extension services to run concurrently. As the study pointed out, services delivered by agricultural extension agents and farm-farmer exchanges remain important in the acquisition and application of agriculture and climate information. There will therefore be the need for continual recognition and investments in agricultural extension agents and building their capacities to improve and sustain their services to farmers.

The literature identified pointed to increased gender inequalities in the access to ICTs. This is a known fact in most of Africa and confirmed by several authors (e.g., [14,15,28]). Like most parts of Africa, ICT use in West Africa is set to increase. However, the cultural setting of rural Africa and women’s limited control of household financial resources will constrain their capacity to acquire and benefit from them. Some authors, such as McOmber et al. [13] and Gillwald et al. [14], have argued that despite the increasing mobile penetration in Africa, men are about 80% more likely to own mobile phones than women due to the aforementioned challenges. Considering the role that ICTs can have on women’s adaptation to climate change and agricultural activities, gender equality but be incorporated into ICT development strategies for agriculture and climate actions in West Africa. It is worth mentioning that addressing gender inequalities in ICT use may require a multifaceted approach due to the interplay of varying factors. Gender norms and culture regarding the use and control of household resources may be difficult to influence. However, gender-responsive policy initiatives may be able to create the enabling environment for men and women to have equal access and control of resources.

3.4.2. Knowledge Gaps for Future Research

It was evident from the literature search that research on ICT use in West African agriculture and climate response is very low in terms of quantity and geographical coverage. The papers came from 9 out of the 17 countries in West Africa, with more than 60% of the relevant literature coming from the two largest economies (Nigeria and Ghana). It is unclear why the intensity of research on ICTs in agriculture was more prominent in Nigeria and Ghana. Perhaps it could be due to the increased use of ICTs among farming communities in the countries and the increased recognition of the role of ICTs in agriculture and climate response. As witnessed in the latest GSMA report, most countries in sub-Saharan Africa have witnessed tremendous growth in mobile phone use; the future projections are also promising. Moreover, the pace may be slower for lower economic countries especially with the expansion of supporting infrastructure for network coverage and fiber optics for improved internet connectivity. This notwithstanding, the potential roles of mobile phones, radio and television in information sharing are not farfetched. These ICT tools have become part of everyday life. More awareness creation and sensitization among farming communities of their potential roles in agriculture, agribusiness and climate response are crucial for the increased use and adoption of ICTs. It is necessary for researchers and development experts to create the necessary evidence to support such knowledge dissemination and exchange.

The search results also indicated that most of the relevant publications were focused on the prevalence and use of ICTs in agriculture. Despite the limited geographical coverage, there is substantially consistent information in the literature to buttress how the use of ICTs could benefit farmers in West Africa and their adaptation to climate change. General information on the barriers to ICT use is also highly reported and seem to be similar across different geographies and contexts. What is unclear is an understanding of the magnitude of the impacts of those barriers on agricultural productivity. At present, the literature seems to focus on hypothetical statements and assumptions. For instance, it is pre-empted that a lack of ICTs for accessing agricultural information may lead to poor decisions that may increase the risk of crop failure. While this assumption may apply, it will take the interplay of production factors to realize such expected results. The same thought process can be said of the linkages between ICT use and agricultural productivity indicators such as an increased grain yield, profits, improved resource use efficiency, reduced loss to pest and diseases etc. Well-designed field evidence is encouraged to provide substantial evidence to support the theory of change on ICT use in agriculture and climate response.

The literature also pointed to important knowledge gaps in the gender perspectives of ICT use. Generally, there was paucity of gender-disaggregated data to understand gender preferences among various ICT options, benefits and barriers. It is also important that the barriers to ICT use are properly diagnosed to allow both men and women to propose ways of improving equality in access. Moreover, research is needed to understand the ICT linkages to gender empowerment in West Africa. This is crucial for informing policy actions that promote ICT use to the benefit of rural women.

4. Conclusions

The potential role of ICT in agriculture and climate response is highly acknowledged but not much evidence is generated across West Africa. The available literature seems to be focused on Nigeria and Ghana. The most popular ICT devices used by farmers are radio, television and mobile phones. They are mainly used for receiving agriculture, market and climate-related information. Mobile phones have an added use for agribusiness for financial transactions, marketing agricultural produce and establishing a linkage with customers. The papers did not provide substantial evidence to suggest distinct gender preferences in the use of the three most common ICT devices. However, the use of radio was most popular among the three due to easiness of movement, cost-effectiveness, low maintenance cost and easy access to information in local language. Moreover, the papers revealed both men and women face similar barriers in the use of ICT devices. Poor network coverage and connectivity; low income; and an erratic electricity supply were most evident in the papers. It was also evident that gender inequalities persist in the acquisition of ICT devices due to the interplay of factors; paramount among them is women’s limited ability to access and control financial resources and other household assets. With a limited control of the barriers constraining ICT use in agriculture, the study suggests that it will be important to allow both traditional and ICT-based extension services to run concurrently. As the study pointed out, services delivered by agricultural extension agents and farm–farmer exchanges remain important in the acquisition and application of agriculture and climate information. While constraints to the acquisition and use of ICT devices persist, using extension agents to reach the geographically dispersed and remote rural farming communities in West Africa is critical.

The papers revealed that ICTs can help improve agricultural productivity and promote climate change adaptation. However, there were divergent views on how ICTs improve gender outcomes. It was found that creating an enabling environment for women to acquire and use ICTs can lead to gender outcomes if women are also able to have access to inputs and the resources needed to implement agro-advisories. More research evidence on the linkage between ICT and agricultural outcomes such as yield, profits, labor productivity and losses due to pests and diseases is needed. Finally, the analyses pointed to important knowledge gaps in the gender perspectives of ICT use. There was very limited gender disaggregated data to understand gender preferences among various ICT options, benefits, barriers and gender outcomes.