Iron-Marine Algal Interactions and Impacts: Decreasing Global Warming by Increasing Algal Biomass
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Algal-Iron Relationship
1.2. Role of Ferritin as Storage Form of Iron in Marine Algae (Iron; Homeostasis)
2. Martin’s Hypothesis
2.1. Iron Fertilization
Biological Pump as a Result of Iron Fertilization
2.2. How Is Artificial Iron Fertilization Carried Out
2.3. Iron Fertilization Experiments Outcomes
2.4. Experiment near the Gulf Area
2.5. Why Are Diatoms the Most Dominant Algal Group to Iron Fertilization Experiments?
2.6. Reservations on Iron Fertilization Experiments
- (1)
- Nutrient depletion and co-limitation of both iron and silicate [57]. Colimitation, which means that limiting concentrations of one metal may also affect the requirement for another metal and this can subsequently lead to decreased phytoplankton growth. Silica will become depleted, as well as nitrate, after addition of iron as diatoms growth increases accompanied by silica consumptio. Moreover, co-limitation increases oxidative e stress in diatoms, and as a consequence more Mn is required for superoxide dismutase. On the other hand, low-Fe increases the Cu requirements as it replaces iron in some proteins [64];
- (2)
- The iron dispersed may become, in part, adsorbed onto sinking particles without benefiting the phytoplankton. Therefore, some iron can partly be used by phytoplanktons, but the rest is buried;
- (3)
- The experiments are of short duration, limited range, and the amount of nutrient added may not be good enough for CO2 export;
- (4)
- Any fertilization-enhanced biomass will decrease oxygen levels in the sub-surface ocean. Also, this would affect the release of CO2 to subsurface seawater during decomposition of planktons and reduce pH (acidification) and carbonate ion concentration [57];
- (5)
- Ocean acidification, where global warming with increased carbon dioxide leads to higher concentrations of dissolved CO2 in surface marine waters as grazers feed on blooms of phytoplanktons and respire, resulting in ocean acidification [12]. An increase in ocean acidification in deep water may result from large-scale fertilization as this will lead to an increase in CO2 sequestration at depth. Consequently, this will change the depth at which carbonate biominerals, thereby limiting their supply to deep-ocean organisms that build shells and structures, like sea coral. One important aspect is greenhouse gas emissions. The ocean is an important source of N2O, but the evolution of this gas can increase due to iron fertilization. If fertilization takes place in warm waters low in oxygen, N2O yield will be large. Decomposition of sinking biomass can produce persistent greenhouse gases, nitrous oxide and methane, with much higher global warming potentials than CO2 [57];
- (6)
- Induction of toxic algal blooms such as that of the diatom Pseudo-nizchia or dinoflagellates:
- (a)
- Pseudo-nitzschia spp. produces the neurotoxin domoic acid, which binds iron with a low affinity, but sufficient enough to facilitate iron uptake [65]. The ability to monopolize iron availability via a species specific phytosiderophore could thus explain the dominance of Pseudo-nitzschia in blooms. The fact that domoic acid is neurotoxin adds to the side effects of iron fertilization in promoting toxic algal blooms. Trick et al. [66] demonstrated that the sparse oceanic Pseudo-nitzschia community at the high-nitrate, low-chlorophyll ocean station PAPA (50° N, 145° W), produced approximately 200 pg domoic acid per litre. They reported that in response to iron addition, domoic acid changes phytoplankton community structure in favor of Pseudo-nitzschia, and that oceanic Pseudo-nitzschia are toxic. This further makes large-scale iron fertilizations questionable with regard to benefits and sustainability.
- (b)
- Dinoflagellates overgrowth as a result of iron fertilization. Indeed, community composition of microzooplankton (dinoflagellates and ciliates) of the naturally iron-fertilized Kerguelen area (Southern Ocean) region was characterized. This region has a complex mesoscale circulation resulting in a patchy distribution of phytoplankton blooms. Ninety-seven morphospecies of dinoflagellates and 41 ciliates were identified, in addition to 202 Alveolata-related operational taxonomical units. Diatom-consuming dinoflagellates were the most enhanced taxa in the blooms. A clear difference in the phytoplankton and microzooplankton community structures between the iron-fertilized and HNLC regions was observed. Dinoflagellates and ciliates role as phytoplankton consumers and as prey for mesozooplankton was evaluated. Dinoflagellates were most likely the major phytoplankton grazers, and a potential food source for copepods. Some of the dinoflagellates that were found were Gyrodinium spp., Gymnodinium spp., Amphidinium spp. [67].
2.7. Improvement to Be Made to the Experiments
- (1)
- Fertilization must take place in the center of an eddy where grazing is low and silicates are high;
- (2)
- Duration of the experiment would be favorable if it was over a minimum of ~40 days, with repeated iron discharges of ~2000 kg each within ~10–15 days in region 300 km2 and a ~2 nM concentration;
- (3)
- Tracking of iron fertilized both physically and biogeochemically;
- (4)
- Using neutral sediment traps;
- (5)
- Monitoring of hazardous gases (e.g., N2O, DMS; and halogenated volatile organic compounds
3. Fish Productivity
4. Legal Aspects
5. Future Improvements
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
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El Semary, N.A. Iron-Marine Algal Interactions and Impacts: Decreasing Global Warming by Increasing Algal Biomass. Sustainability 2022, 14, 10372. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141610372
El Semary NA. Iron-Marine Algal Interactions and Impacts: Decreasing Global Warming by Increasing Algal Biomass. Sustainability. 2022; 14(16):10372. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141610372
Chicago/Turabian StyleEl Semary, Nermin A. 2022. "Iron-Marine Algal Interactions and Impacts: Decreasing Global Warming by Increasing Algal Biomass" Sustainability 14, no. 16: 10372. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141610372