Ecological Approaches to Textile Dyeing: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Research Methods
3. Conventional Textile Dyeing Processes
- Improving the absorption of dyes and chemicals in subsequent processes;
- Achieving an even water absorption value;
- Removing all types of impurities;
- Encouraging the absence of creases and wrinkles; and
- Achieving a high whiteness value.
3.1. Environmental Issues of the Conventional Textile Dyeing
4. Mapping of Alternatives for Ecological Coloration Processes
- Ecological: natural dyes come from renewable materials; they are less toxic, less pollution-causing, less harmful to health, and non-carcinogenic;
- Biodegradable and renewable: natural dyes from plants come from agro-renewable and biodegradable sources;
- Color palette: the use of different mordants or different concentrations with the same dye can be explored to obtain different colors;
- Functional benefits and properties: some natural dyes have antibacterial, antimicrobial, insect repellent, antioxidant, and UV protection properties.
- Production in the desired quantity, regardless of climate fluctuations, geographic conditions, and the whims of nature.
- Versatility and ease of production, compared with other sources.
- Ability to obtain different colors and tones, without interference with genes.
- Easy propagation and low cost for industrial production, with easy growth on substrates under controlled conditions.
5. Discussion
- Use of ecological materials and/or processes for pretreatment and dyeing;
- Minimization of water use, reuse of wastewater, and treatment of effluents;
- Incorporation of efficient and economically viable technologies;
- Development of partnerships between the textile fiber production industry, chemistry experts, and professionals in textile design and processing; and
- Dissemination of information to all textile professionals, especially those professionals who are involved in the design process.
6. Conclusions and Future Trends
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Pretreatment | Objective | Water (L/Tonne Products) |
---|---|---|
Desizing | Sizes are added to the textile substrate to improve the mechanical strength of the fibers during the weaving process [23]. Desizing consists of removing the bonding material using acid, alkali or oxidant. This process occurs because the presence of any sizing materials, such as starch, polyvinyl alcohol, and guar gum, could hinder the penetration of dyes and chemicals inside the fiber [1,24,25]. | 2500–21,000 [26] |
Scouring | The pretreatment stage for the purification of textiles involves boiling of textile with alkaline agents or surfactants or organic solvents [24]. This process removes the fatty matter, which mainly consists of waxes, proteins, pectin substances, and mineral materials, adhered and/or added to the textile substrate [1,8,22]. | 20,000–45,000 [26] |
Mercerizing | A treatment applied to the textile substrate, in which it is immersed under tension in a cold solution of sodium hydroxide (22.5%) and later neutralized in an acid medium, with the objective of improving its appearance and its physical and chemical compounds, as well as increasing the brightness and affinity for dyes [1,27,28]. | 17,000–32,000 [26] |
Bleaching | A chemical process that eliminates unwanted colored matter from fibers, yarns, or cloth. In this process, the natural coloration matter is removed by means of reducing or oxidizing agents, such as hydrogen peroxide, chlorine bleaching, and sodium hypochlorite. After washing and chemical bleaching, a natural permanent whiteness is obtained, which can be further enhanced by the application of optical brighteners [1,25,28]. | 2500–25,000 [26] |
Process | Enzyme | Advantages |
---|---|---|
Biodesizing | Amylase, lipase, pectinase, Polygalacturonase [24,42]. | Generation of a lower volume of wastewater, with lower amounts of toxic chemicals compared to the traditional desizing [42]. |
Bioscouring | Pectinase, cellulase, cutinase, lipase [24,42]. | The biosourcing process is carried out at neutral pH; it reduces water consumption by 30% to 50% compared with traditional cleaning processes. In the biosourcing of cotton fibers, there is a small loss of weight and strength, maintaining the natural softness of the substrate [42]. |
Biobleaching | Oxidoreductase, xylanase, laccase [24,42]. | Textile substrates that are subjected to a combination of pretreatment steps with biobleaching show good results in terms of whiteness, absorbency, dyeability, and tensile properties [42]. |
Pretreatment | Objective |
---|---|
Ultraviolet radiation (UV) | UV treatment improves the coloration process of textile products due to surface modification of the textile substrate. UV technology can be used for bleaching and surface modification processes prior to coloration processes, such as dyeing and printing. UV also increases the wettability of hydrophobic fibers in the printing process and prevents the formation of pilling problems [43]. |
Plasma | Plasma, the “fourth state of matter”, is an electrically neutral ionized gas with a significant number of charged particles that are not bound to an atom or molecule. Plasma technology can assist in desizing, removing natural or synthetic grease and wax from textile fibers, increasing the dyeing rates of textile polymers, and improving the diffusion of dye molecules into fibers to increase color intensity and wash fastness [44]. |
Ozone | Ozone is excellent for oxidizing organic or inorganic impurities that are present in textile substrates [22]. The ozone process promotes the oxidation of the textile fiber surface to improve its dyeability [1]. The ozone process can be used for bleaching under low temperature conditions, replacing the use of hydrogen peroxide and less water [22]. |
Microwave | Microwave technology involves electromagnetic radiation and interacting electric and magnetic fields, which oscillate in directions that are perpendicular to each other. The use of microwaves is a heating source for desizing, scouring, bleaching processes, dyeing, and drying processes [39]. |
Origin | Plant | Scientific Name | Color | Source |
---|---|---|---|---|
Bark | Onion | Allium cepa | Brown | [20] |
Flower | Lavender | Lavandula sp. | Grey | [45] |
Leaf | Eucalyptus | Eucalyptus sp. | Brown/yellow | [45] |
Spinach | Spinacea oleracea | Green | [45] | |
Thyme Bela Luz | Thymus mastichina | Yellow | [45] | |
Pepper mint | Mentha piperita | Green | [45] | |
Artichoke | Cynara scolymus | Green | [45] | |
Boldo | Peumus boldus | Pink | [45] | |
Blueberry | Vaccinium myrtillus | Purple/blue | [45] | |
Green tea | Camellia sinensis | Brown | [45] | |
Rhizome | Saffron | Curcuma longa | Brown/red | [20] |
Seed | Urucum | Bixa orellana L. | Orange/red | [20] |
Coffee | Coffea arabica | Brown | [20] |
Microbes | Name | Color | Source |
---|---|---|---|
Bacteria | Chryseobacterium shigense | Yellow | [47] |
Pseudomonas sp. | Brown | [47] | |
Serratia plymuthica | Pink | [47] | |
Vibrio sp. | Red | [48] | |
Serratia marcescens | Red | [49] | |
Chromobacterium violaceum | Violet | [50] | |
Serratia marcescens | Red | [51] | |
Escherichia coli | Blue | [47] | |
Rugamonas rubra | Red | [50] | |
Mushrooms | Sarcodon imbricatus | Blue/green | [47] |
Hydnellum peckii | Beige/blue | [47] | |
Cortinarius semisanguineus | Red/orange | [47] | |
Phaeolus shcweinitzii | Green | [47] | |
Pisolithus tinctorius | Brown | [47] | |
Fungi | Fusarium oxysporum | Pink/purple | [52] |
Monascus purpureus | Red | [52] | |
Emericellanidulans | Red/brown | [52] | |
Fusariumverticillioides | Red | [52] |
Technology | Description |
---|---|
Plasma | This treatment promotes surface modification of polymeric/textile substrates, improves hydrophilic properties (chemical changes) and increases the surface properties (physical changes) of fibers/textile substrates. This surface modification increases the dyeability of the fiber and is an effluent-free and environmentally friendly process [56]. There are several benefits in applying plasma technology that are vital for sustainability, such as reducing the use of water, chemicals, and energy (compared with the conventional wet method), minimal consumption of chemicals, and no required drying process [57,58]. |
Supercritical CO2 | Supercritical carbon dioxide dyeing is a revolutionary and attractive ecological alternative to conventional wet methods in the textile industry [39]. The supercritical CO2 process involves using less energy than conventional processes. The principle of the process is based on heating carbon dioxide (CO2) above 31 °C, pressurized above 74 bar, where it becomes supercritical, a state of matter that is an expanded liquid or a strongly compressed gas [1,59]. For supercritical carbon dioxide dyeing, the CO2 is heated to 120 °C and pressurized at 250 bar; the CO2 penetrates the fibers, thus acting as a swelling agent during dyeing, i.e., increasing the diffusion of dyes in the fibers [59]. |
AirDye® | AirDye® technology is a sustainable solution for printing and dyeing. AirDye® uses the process of sublimation, i.e., transferring inks to fabrics using transfer paper combined with heat and pressure. All used paper is recycled, and the dyes are inert, which means they can return to their original state and be reused. Therefore, the AirDye® process has no harmful byproducts, which provides a significant reduction in energy and costs, as there is no need for screens, boilers, dryers, or chemicals [60]. The process uses up to 95% less water and up to 86% less energy, and reduces emissions by 84%, compared with conventional dyeing methods [60]. |
Ultrasonic | Dyeing with ultrasound technology causes dispersion, degassing, and acceleration of the diffusion rate of the dye or finishing chemicals inside the fiber [61]. In this process, the dispersion of dye molecules occurs individually, increasing the activation energy of the molecules and causing a rapid diffusion within the fiber structure to increase the dyeing rate [62]. The ultrasonic process can be applied in almost all preparatory wet processing operations, such as desizing, scouring, bleaching, and washing [63]. |
Microwave | The microwave frequencies are between the radio wave bands and the infrared radiation of the electromagnetic spectrum, corresponding to the frequency band between 300 MHz to 300 GHz with a wavelength of 1 m to 1 mm (MAITI). Microwave technology offers uniform, rapid, and effective heating, which increases the dye molecules’ diffusion in the polymers, resulting in a high exhaustion rate, high dye diffusion, and excellent color fastness properties [64,65,66]. |
Nano-dyeTM | The dyeing process called Nano-Dye, which is a continuous dyeing system in which reactive dye molecules are kept in individual nano stages to incorporate to cellulose, has the following advantages compared with the conventional dyeing process: no salt, use of up to 75% less water, use of up to 75% less energy, and up to 97% exhaustion [67]. The studies carried out by Nano-Dye Technologies Inc demonstrate that the indirect electrochemical reduction dyeing method with indigo dye has a low economic cost and excellent cyclical performance, which can significantly contribute to increasing the sustainability of dyeing in the production of denim [67]. |
Electrochemical | Electrochemical dyeing is an efficient process for the reduction and oxidation of vat and sulfur dyes, which are normally used for cellulosic fibers [5]. The studies carried out by Li et al. [68] demonstrated that the indirect electrochemical reduction dyeing method with indigo dye has a low economic cost and excellent cyclical performance, which can significantly contribute to increasing the sustainability of dyeing in the production of denim. |
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Lara, L.; Cabral, I.; Cunha, J. Ecological Approaches to Textile Dyeing: A Review. Sustainability 2022, 14, 8353. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14148353
Lara L, Cabral I, Cunha J. Ecological Approaches to Textile Dyeing: A Review. Sustainability. 2022; 14(14):8353. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14148353
Chicago/Turabian StyleLara, Livia, Isabel Cabral, and Joana Cunha. 2022. "Ecological Approaches to Textile Dyeing: A Review" Sustainability 14, no. 14: 8353. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14148353
APA StyleLara, L., Cabral, I., & Cunha, J. (2022). Ecological Approaches to Textile Dyeing: A Review. Sustainability, 14(14), 8353. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14148353