Does Food Insecurity in Early Life Make People More Depressed?—Evidence from CHARLS
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Theoretical Framework and Literature Review
2.1. Theoretical Framework
2.2. Food Insecurity and Individual Health
2.3. Food Insecurity Experience and Mental Health
3. Data
3.1. Data Source
3.2. Main Variables
3.3. Empirical Strategy
4. Estimation Results
4.1. The Long-Run Relationship between Food Insecurity Experience and Individual Health
4.2. Robustness Checks
4.3. Heterogeneity
4.4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Migration | |
---|---|
Food insecurity experience | −0.008 |
(0.008) | |
R2 | 0.066 |
N | 10,475 |
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
CES-D | Self-Rated Health | Cognitive Ability | Memory | Sleep Hours | Life Satisfaction | |
Reference group: food insecurity at age 6–12 | ||||||
Without food insecurity | −0.046 | 0.088 *** | −0.056 ** | 0.033 | 0.049 | 0.028 |
(0.030) | (0.033) | (0.028) | (0.033) | (0.028) | (0.057) | |
Food insecurity at age 0–5 | 0.116 *** | −0.049 | −0.058 ** | −0.067 ** | −0.039 | −0.127 ** |
(0.027) | (0.025) | (0.024) | (0.030) | (0.025) | (0.052) | |
Food insecurity at age 13–17 | 0.072 *** | −0.043 | −0.039 | −0.036 | −0.009 | −0.053 |
(0.024) | (0.026) | (0.027) | (0.027) | (0.024) | (0.045) | |
N | 10,545 | 11,411 | 11,816 | 11,371 | 11,268 | 11,313 |
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(1) All | (2) People with Food Insecurity | (3) People without Food Insecurity | (2)–(3) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Panel A: Health outcomes | ||||
CES-D | 8.02 | 8.50 | 6.92 | 1.58 *** |
Self-reported health | 2.08 | 2.02 | 2.22 | −0.20 *** |
Cognitive ability | 6.76 | 6.64 | 7.05 | −0.40 *** |
Memory | 1.85 | 1.81 | 1.95 | −0.14 *** |
Sleep hours | 6.34 | 6.26 | 6.52 | −0.26 *** |
Life satisfaction | 0.92 | 0.91 | 0.93 | −0.02 ** |
Panel B: Individual Characteristics | ||||
Male (%) | 48.22 | 50.29 | 43.58 | 6.71 *** |
Age | 61.17 | 61.96 | 59.41 | 2.54 *** |
Married (%) | 86.68 | 86.60 | 86.85 | 0.25 |
Education Level | ||||
Primary school (%) | 66.20 | 70.28 | 57.00 | 13.28 *** |
Middle school (%) | 21.88 | 19.50 | 27.23 | −7.73 *** |
High school or above (%) | 11.92 | 10.22 | 15.76 | −5.54 *** |
Panel C: Household Characteristics | ||||
Number of siblings | 3.97 | 4.02 | 3.84 | 0.18 *** |
Low-income household during childhood | 0.38 | 0.45 | 0.23 | −0.22 *** |
Parents had a serious deformity (%) | 5.44 | 6.41 | 3.25 | 3.16 *** |
Mother’s education level | ||||
Primary school (%) | 98.03 | 98.80 | 96.29 | 2.52 *** |
Middle school (%) | 1.15 | 0.71 | 2.15 | −1.44 *** |
High school or above (%) | 0.82 | 0.49 | 1.57 | −1.08 *** |
Father’s education level | ||||
Primary school (%) | 92.02 | 93.67 | 88.31 | 5.36 *** |
Middle school (%) | 4.62 | 3.66 | 6.80 | −3.13 *** |
High school or above (%) | 3.36 | 2.67 | 4.90 | −2.22 *** |
Panel D: Community Characteristics | ||||
Urban (%) | 36.85 | 34.41 | 42.37 | −7.96 *** |
Access to road (%) | 93.96 | 93.64 | 94.66 | −1.02 ** |
Nearby access to hospital (%) | 79.63 | 80.21 | 78.32 | 1.89 ** |
Per capital net income (1000 yuan) | 4.91 | 4.65 | 5.49 | −0.84 *** |
Main terrain | ||||
Plain (%) | 39.96 | 37.40 | 45.50 | −8.01 *** |
Hill (%) | 31.34 | 32.11 | 29.60 | 2.51 ** |
Mountainous Region (%) | 21.14 | 22.48 | 18.13 | 4.35 *** |
Plateau (%) | 4.73 | 4.76 | 4.65 | 0.11 |
Basin (%) | 2.83 | 3.15 | 2.12 | 1.03 ** |
N | 10,545 | 7326 | 3219 |
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Food insecurity | 0.173 *** | 0.138 *** | 0.138 *** | 0.138 *** |
(0.022) | (0.023) | (0.023) | (0.023) | |
Individual Characteristics | ||||
Male | −0.344 *** | −0.355 *** | −0.359 *** | −0.360 *** |
(0.021) | (0.021) | (0.021) | (0.021) | |
Married | −0.268 *** | −0.265 *** | −0.267 *** | −0.267 *** |
(0.030) | (0.030) | (0.030) | (0.030) | |
Education Level | ||||
Middle school | −0.184 *** | −0.167 *** | −0.160 *** | −0.160 *** |
(0.026) | (0.026) | (0.025) | (0.025) | |
High school or above | −0.344 *** | −0.324 *** | −0.310 *** | −0.310 *** |
(0.036) | (0.036) | (0.035) | (0.035) | |
Household Characteristics | ||||
Number of siblings | −0.007 | −0.007 | −0.007 | |
(0.006) | (0.006) | (0.006) | ||
Low-income household during childhood | 0.156 *** | 0.155 *** | 0.155 *** | |
(0.022) | (0.022) | (0.022) | ||
Parents had a serious deformity | 0.189 *** | 0.187 *** | 0.187 *** | |
(0.045) | (0.046) | (0.046) | ||
Mother’s education level | ||||
Middle school | −0.035 | −0.040 | −0.040 | |
(0.069) | (0.069) | (0.069) | ||
High school or above | 0.263 ** | 0.268 ** | 0.268 *** | |
(0.104) | (0.104) | (0.104) | ||
Father’s education level | ||||
Middle school | −0.028 | −0.024 | −0.024 | |
(0.049) | (0.049) | (0.049) | ||
High school or above | −0.075 | −0.065 | −0.065 | |
(0.063) | (0.063) | (0.063) | ||
Community Characteristics | ||||
Urban | −0.115 *** | −0.115 *** | ||
(0.040) | (0.040) | |||
Access to road | −0.048 | −0.049 | ||
(0.070) | (0.071) | |||
Nearby access to hospital | −0.038 | −0.038 | ||
(0.044) | (0.044) | |||
Per capital net income | −0.025 | −0.025 | ||
(0.023) | (0.023) | |||
Main terrain | ||||
Hill | −0.054 | −0.054 | ||
(0.063) | (0.063) | |||
Mountainous Region | −0.116 | −0.116 | ||
(0.085) | (0.085) | |||
Plateau | −0.195 | −0.196 | ||
(0.181) | (0.181) | |||
Basin | −0.014 | −0.015 | ||
(0.121) | (0.122) | |||
Cohort dummies | √ | √ | √ | √ |
County fixed effects | √ | √ | √ | √ |
County time trends | √ | |||
N | 10,545 | 10,545 | 10,545 | 10,545 |
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | |
Be Annoyed | Can’t Concentrate | Be Depressed | Have Difficulty in Doing Things | Be Hopeful about the Future | |
Food insecurity | 0.105 *** | 0.128 *** | 0.118 *** | 0.169 *** | −0.032 |
(0.027) | (0.030) | (0.026) | (0.030) | (0.026) | |
N | 11,259 | 11,127 | 11,251 | 11,251 | 10,938 |
(6) | (7) | (8) | (9) | (10) | |
Be Fearful | Poor Sleep | Be Happy | Feel Lonely | Cannot Get Going | |
Food insecurity | 0.037 | 0.123 *** | −0.113 *** | 0.110 *** | 0.101 ** |
(0.033) | (0.027) | (0.023) | (0.030) | (0.032) | |
N | 11,327 | 11,336 | 11,265 | 11,282 | 11,237 |
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | |
Self-Rated Health | Cognitive Ability | Memory | Sleep Hours | Life Satisfaction | |
Food insecurity | −0.133 *** | 0.008 | −0.084 *** | −0.073 *** | −0.121 *** |
(0.028) | (0.025) | (0.026) | (0.024) | (0.044) | |
N | 11,411 | 11,816 | 11,371 | 11,268 | 11,313 |
(1) CES-D | (2) Self-Rated Health | (3) Cognitive Ability | (4) Memory | (5) Life Satisfaction | (6) Sleep Hours | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Reference group: without food insecurity | ||||||
Food insecurity at age 0–5 | 0.112 *** | −0.046 ** | −0.051 ** | −0.081 *** | −0.113 ** | −0.049 ** |
(0.024) | (0.023) | (0.022) | (0.027) | (0.050) | (0.023) | |
Food insecurity at age 6–12 | 0.062 ** | −0.095 *** | 0.045 | −0.001 | −0.065 | −0.023 |
(0.025) | (0.026) | (0.025) | (0.029) | (0.050) | (0.026) | |
Food insecurity at age 13–17 | 0.072 *** | −0.051 | −0.024 | −0.047 | −0.048 | −0.020 |
(0.022) | (0.026) | (0.026) | (0.027) | (0.042) | (0.023) | |
N | 10,590 | 11,464 | 11,880 | 11,423 | 11,364 | 11,319 |
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
CES-D | Self-Rated Health | Cognitive Ability | Memory | Sleep Hours | Life Satisfaction | |
Panel A: logit model | ||||||
Food insecurity | 0.239 *** | −0.235 *** | 0.0124 | −0.151 *** | −0.117 *** | −0.241 *** |
(0.040) | (0.048) | (0.042) | (0.045) | (0.041) | (0.089) | |
N | 10,545 | 11,411 | 11,816 | 11,371 | 11,268 | 11,313 |
Panel B: including village/community fixed effects | ||||||
Food insecurity | 0.134 *** | −0.110 *** | −0.030 | −0.077 | −0.061 | −0.099 *** |
(0.024) | (0.028) | (0.028) | (0.032) | (0.029) | (0.031) | |
N | 10,545 | 12,064 | 12,093 | 11,302 | 11,192 | 11,244 |
Panel C: including health status during childhood | ||||||
Food insecurity | 0.132 *** | −0.125 *** | 0.007 | −0.080 *** | −0.073 *** | −0.111 ** |
(0.022) | (0.028) | (0.025) | (0.026) | (0.023) | (0.045) | |
Health status during childhood | −0.275 *** | 0.333 *** | 0.044 | 0.218 *** | 0.139 *** | 0.231 *** |
(0.029) | (0.034) | (0.030) | (0.035) | (0.034) | (0.051) | |
N | 10,525 | 11,387 | 11,785 | 11,347 | 11,244 | 11,292 |
Panel D: excluding migrant sample | ||||||
Food insecurity | 0.134 *** | −0.106 *** | 0.028 | −0.081 *** | −0.070 *** | −0.140 *** |
(0.025) | (0.032) | (0.028) | (0.029) | (0.025) | (0.051) | |
N | 8795 | 9530 | 9846 | 9499 | 9413 | 9452 |
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
CES-D | Self-Rated Health | Cognitive Ability | Memory | Sleep Hours | Life Satisfaction | |
Panel A: in terms of gender | ||||||
Food insecurity | 0.173 *** | −0.142 *** | −0.043 | −0.110 *** | −0.129 *** | −0.149 *** |
(0.031) | (0.033) | (0.030) | (0.034) | (0.030) | (0.055) | |
Male | −0.308 *** | 0.182 *** | 0.339 *** | 0.257 *** | 0.090 ** | 0.152 ** |
(0.037) | (0.038) | (0.036) | (0.039) | (0.036) | (0.072) | |
Male × Food insecurity | −0.074 | 0.019 | 0.112 *** | 0.055 | 0.122 *** | 0.071 |
(0.044) | (0.045) | (0.042) | (0.047) | (0.042) | (0.083) | |
N | 10,545 | 11,411 | 11,816 | 11,371 | 11,268 | 11,313 |
Panel B: in terms of urban community | ||||||
Food insecurity | 0.157 *** | −0.156 *** | −0.021 | −0.116 *** | −0.066 ** | −0.137 *** |
(0.030) | (0.031) | (0.028) | (0.032) | (0.029) | (0.053) | |
Urban | −0.081 | −0.021 | 0.158 *** | 0.090 | −0.026 | 0.054 |
(0.044) | (0.046) | (0.043) | (0.047) | (0.043) | (0.085) | |
Urban × Food insecurity | −0.049 | 0.058 | 0.075 | 0.080 | −0.019 | 0.048 |
(0.045) | (0.047) | (0.044) | (0.048) | (0.044) | (0.087) | |
N | 10,545 | 11,411 | 11,816 | 11,371 | 11,268 | 11,313 |
Panel C: in terms of number of siblings | ||||||
Food insecurity | 0.066 | −0.129 *** | 0.015 | −0.018 | −0.058 | 0.009 |
(0.048) | (0.050) | (0.046) | (0.051) | (0.046) | (0.086) | |
More than three siblings | −0.073 | 0.001 | 0.046 | 0.033 | 0.035 | 0.162 |
(0.049) | (0.051) | (0.047) | (0.052) | (0.047) | (0.090) | |
More than three siblings × Food insecurity | 0.092 | −0.005 | −0.009 | −0.084 | −0.019 | −0.170 |
(0.053) | (0.055) | (0.051) | (0.056) | (0.051) | (0.096) | |
N | 10,545 | 11,411 | 11,816 | 11,371 | 11,268 | 11,313 |
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Liu, Y.; Zhao, X. Does Food Insecurity in Early Life Make People More Depressed?—Evidence from CHARLS. Sustainability 2022, 14, 7990. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14137990
Liu Y, Zhao X. Does Food Insecurity in Early Life Make People More Depressed?—Evidence from CHARLS. Sustainability. 2022; 14(13):7990. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14137990
Chicago/Turabian StyleLiu, Yanrong, and Xuecun Zhao. 2022. "Does Food Insecurity in Early Life Make People More Depressed?—Evidence from CHARLS" Sustainability 14, no. 13: 7990. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14137990