Post-Extraction Novel Ecosystems Support Plant and Vegetation Diversity in Urban-Industrial Landscapes
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Characteristics of the Research Area
2.2. Data Acquisition
3. Results
3.1. The Plant and Vegetation Diversity of the Post-Extraction Sites
3.2. The Ecological Spectrum of the Rare, Endangered, and Protected Plant Species of the Novel Ecosystem Habitats
- Differences in participation are significant according to G-test for L (G = 21.122, p = 0.006829), T (G = 33.496, p < 0.001), R (G = 21.964, p = 0.004983) and Tr (G = 41.935, p < 0.0001), and non-significant for F (G = 16.406, p = 0.08858).
- The age of heaps: I—up to 10 years, II—up to 30 years, III—up to 60 years, IV—more than 60 years.
- Light index (L): 1—deep shade, 2—moderate shade, 3—half shade, 4—moderate light, 5—full light.
- Thermal index (T): 1—coldest areas in the country, mainly alpine and subnivean zones, 2—moderately cold areas, mainly subalpine and upper mountain zones, 3—moderately cold climatic conditions, lower mountain zone, northern division in lowlands and special microhabitats—raised bogs, 4—moderately warm climatic conditions, most of the lowland and colline region, 5—warmest regions and microhabitats.
- Soil acidity index (R): 1—highly acidic soils (pH < 4), 2—acidic soils (4 ≤ pH < 5), 3—moderately acidic (5 ≤ pH < 6), 4—neutral soils (6 ≤ pH < 7), 5—alkaline (pH > 7).
- Moisture index (F): 1—very dry habitats, 2—dry habitats, 3—fresh habitats, 4—moist habitats, 5—wet habitats, 6—aquatic.
- Trophism index (Tr): 1—extremely poor (extremely oligotrophic) soils (water)—raised bogs, loose sand, dry coniferous forest, 2—poor (oligotrophic) soils (water)—fresh coniferous forest, 3—moderately poor (mesotrophic) soils (water)—mixed forest, acidophilous oak and beech forests, 4—rich (eutrophic) soils (water)—lowland, fertile beech forests, 5—very rich (extremely fertile) soils (water), 6—over-fertilized soils (water).
4. Discussion
4.1. Novel Habitats, Diversity of Plant Species and Vegetation
4.2. Energy and Matter Flow
4.3. The Results of the Study in a Broader Context
5. Conclusions
5.1. The Diversity of Plant Species and Vegetation of Novel Habitats
5.2. The Importance of Novel Ecosystems in Urban Post-Industrial Sites
5.3. Novel Ecosystem Habitats—The Need for Good Environmental Decisions and the Possibilities of Management Projects
5.4. The Potential of Novel Ecosystems
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References and Note
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Types of Post-Mineral Extraction Site | Characteristics of Site Types |
---|---|
Quarries | The Silesian Upland is an area where carbonate rocks and coal mining are inherently related. Limestone excavation areas are suitable habitats for the growth and development of limestone rock and xerothermic species as well as shade-loving and photophilous (light-loving) species. Water accumulating at the bottom of the excavation contributes to the formation of water reservoirs and such habitats are inhabited by wetland plant species and peat bog vegetation [30]. |
Opencast sandpits | In the Silesia region, sand excavations cover about 50 km2 [31]. Only a few of these are still active. The closed opencast sandpits have been managed to establish forests, some of which are subject to secondary vegetation succession, while others are filled with water. These studied post-mineral extraction sites are habitats for rare plant species. |
Heaps | Post-black coal mine heaps are very common in the Silesian Upland. On the other hand, heaps associated with zinc, lead ores, and smelters are less common [6]. Heaps are different in petrographic, mineral, chemical, granulometric, and pH composition. These areas provide mineral soil substrates suitable for colonization by living organisms. Plant communities formed during constant spontaneous biological processes are composed not only of common but also rare species under legal protection [26]. |
Subsidence reservoirs | The water reservoirs in the Silesian Upland are connected with subsidence and arose as a result of the side-effects of direct or indirect human activity, and are sometimes referred to as the “Silesian anthropogenic lake district”. They were created as a consequence of underground mining. These reservoirs, due to their function, constitute an essential natural resource [32,33,34]. They contribute to forming wetland habitats for plant and animal species not previously found in the area. These areas are vitally important as breeding habitats for birds [32]. |
Sedimentation pools | During the extraction of black hard coal, water comes out of the geological layers with dissolved mineral substances. The salty water is pumped out from the mine along with the coal dust into special areas with sedimentation pools. In these pools, the coal dust is deposited by gravity onto the bottom. These types of de novo establishment sites provide habitats with wide moisture gradients from aquatic habitats, through wetland to damp terrestrial ones [15]. |
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Woźniak, G.; Chmura, D.; Nowak, T.; Bacler-Żbikowska, B.; Besenyei, L.; Hutniczak, A. Post-Extraction Novel Ecosystems Support Plant and Vegetation Diversity in Urban-Industrial Landscapes. Sustainability 2022, 14, 7611. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14137611
Woźniak G, Chmura D, Nowak T, Bacler-Żbikowska B, Besenyei L, Hutniczak A. Post-Extraction Novel Ecosystems Support Plant and Vegetation Diversity in Urban-Industrial Landscapes. Sustainability. 2022; 14(13):7611. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14137611
Chicago/Turabian StyleWoźniak, Gabriela, Damian Chmura, Teresa Nowak, Barbara Bacler-Żbikowska, Lynn Besenyei, and Agnieszka Hutniczak. 2022. "Post-Extraction Novel Ecosystems Support Plant and Vegetation Diversity in Urban-Industrial Landscapes" Sustainability 14, no. 13: 7611. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14137611