Discussions between Place Branding and Territorial Brand in Regional Development—A Classification Model Proposal for a Territorial Brand

Abstract

There is a clear controversy between the concepts of place branding and territorial brand in the context of regional development, with different meanings being attributed depending on the regions of the world. On the one hand, there are the typological designations attributed to place branding coupled with marketing, and on the other hand, the typologies attributed to local governance and often mixed with the territorial brand but not considering the regional development. This discrepancy creates a gap in the scientific literature for a uniform classification model for the territorial brand. To fill this gap, this study adopts qualitative content analysis, and its main objective is to present a uniform territorial brand classification model. Through a review of the scientific literature on the subject, 18 variables were found to build the theoretical model, which was then applied to the analysis of 60 territorial brands. The results of this study led to the Territorial Brand (TRbrand) Classification Model, with 16 dimensions of analysis and generated 13 concepts. The conclusions reveal a new typological classification model for the territorial brand in regional development, the TRbrand Classification Model, which includes the brand, the territory, the cultural diplomacy, the local governance, the social actors, and the regional development.

1. Introduction

Anholt [1] argues that the terminology used for place branding is controversial and could lead to inadequacies in its application. In the scientific literature, the concepts of territorial branding and place branding are referred to as synonyms. However, they have different meanings depending on the geographical location where they are used [2]. Place branding in Brazil translates as strategic place management, according to Keller and Machado [3], who believe branding refers to product brand management. In addition, place marketing, which is the administration of the places as companies [4], and place branding, which focuses on the image and reputation of the place [1], are also different disciplines. Therefore, management and brand do not share the same position, for they are also different from each other. According to Almeida [2], place branding is a management process, and territorial brand is the product of this management. This approach falls within the view held by Anholt [1], who states that studies on place branding are often incorrectly aligned with the definition of brand found in Marketing literature. However, the concept of place branding, currently consolidated, cannot be regarded solely as a brand, sign, or symbol since it also concerns managing the reputation and image of a place [1], contexts in which a brand is also inserted. As an example, in Portugal, place branding does not have a literal translation as it does in Brazil, being considered as both management and brand. A reader who is specialized in brands is likely to be confused by this situation because of the distinctions between the terms: brand and logo, product and merchandise, and product and management [2].

Based on this phenomenon, we discover different labels for a territorial brand considering different geographical scales: countries (country brand; nation brand), islands (place brand), states (state brand), regions (regional brand), cities (city brand), e streets (place brand), etc. [1,5,6,7,8,9,10,11]. In 2010, Syssner [12] presented place branding as a process of local creation based on four spatial levels: neighborhood, municipality, functional region, and county. The regional development area contrasts the terms region, territory, and place [13]. Consequently, it is evident that there is a lack of studies that provide us with a classification model for territorial brands within the context of regional development.

To contribute to filling these research gaps, the objective of this present study is to assess the studies published on territorial brand typologies within the framework of territorial and regional development and to present a theoretical model for their classification. To achieve this main objective, the following secondary objectives were outlined:

• To identify, in the scientific literature, the key concept of the territorial brand in the context of regional development;
• To identify, in the scientific literature, the variables for classifying a territorial brand in the context of regional development;
• To propose an agglutination model of the variables, analysis dimensions, and typologies for the classification of the territorial brand in the context of regional development.

To fulfill these specific objectives, a literature review on the subject was conducted to identify the key concepts and the variables of the territorial brand in the context of regional development, and a theoretical model for classifying a territorial brand in the context of regional development was built, which was later tested using content analysis. The results of this study led to the Territorial Brand (TRbrand) Classification Model, with 16 dimensions of analysis and which generated 13 concepts and applied them to more than 17 world regions.

The 16 dimensions identified by the Territorial Brand (TRbrand) Classification Model are linked to more than 40 TRbrand sub-dimensions, allowing for the accurate identification of the respective brand typology, which makes the proposed model a useful management and planning tool for researchers and territorial brand managers. Furthermore, the new brand category concepts that derive from this study are useful for the management, planning, and communication of the territorial brand.

Among the results is the identification of various types and categories of territorial brands, leading to a classification model (TRbrand Classification Model). This classification generated 13 concepts for the proposed typology based on territorial brand categories. Therefore, the TRbrand Classification Model was built around these unique concepts of different categories and types of territorial brands.

Based on the findings of the study, it was concluded that there was a possibility for the development of a typological classification for territorial brands within an urban and regional context. According to these results, territorial brands are not all the same, presenting differences that provide support for the creation of the TRbrand Classification Model. As a result of this research, the model created can help deepen the relationships established or currently under construction between brands and territories even further, which represents a significant advancement for science.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Place Branding and Territorial Brand

Place branding is linked to economic development, which includes tourism as a product. The territorial brand also has these two approaches, a mercantilist perspective and one linked with tourism. However, the brand of a product and the brand of a territory have differences in the way they are created, communicated, and managed. This approach was the basis of Almeida’s [2] study, more specifically, the power relations embedded in the territorial brand in the context of regional development. These are power relations that involve social actors in the use and appropriation of the territory produced by a collective group. Moreover, we highlight that urban development targets the city, and regional development addresses the potentialities of regions, considering their differences and socio-spatial realities. This scenario reveals that both the place branding process and the territorial brand are involved in the urban and regional contexts in different situations.

One of the origins of the process of place branding is its application and use as a business [1,14]. This initial use linked place branding to a capitalistic logic. However, place branding has expanded over time, becoming an interdisciplinary area [1,2,10]. Taking this approach is paramount as place branding includes other dimensions: politics [15,16], public diplomacy [1,10,17], and culture [2]. Territorial branding refers to the reinvention of places through the branding process [13] by using the framework of the universe of brands but in the territorial context [2]. In both cases, the territory’s identities are considered to promote the planned places both as a brand and as a product.

In addition, in the Scopus and Web of Science databases, between 1926 and 2021, there are 600 entries for the terms place branding (581), territorial brand (10), territorial branding (5), marca territoriale (4), in contrast to regional development (22,178 entries). Therefore, the term regional development is standardized in the literature. While the other terms refer to the same object, they have different nomenclatures. Two scenarios are presented here: one, in which there is no standardization of terms in the specialized literature, and another, in which the differences between terms are specific, and there can be no standardization. There is evidence that these terms originated in different moments, differing from each other (regional development, in 1926; place branding, in 2001; territorial brand, in 2012; territorial brand in regional development, in 2018).

2.2. Territorial Brand in the Regional Development Context

The territorial brand in the context of regional development is a “[…] set of symbols, cultures, and identities transformed into distinctive signs (brands), visual, verbal, discursive or mixed (visual-discursive), in a planned or organic way, favoring the elaboration of strategies that generate power relations on, in and beyond the territory” [2] (p. 244). The territory is a space connected and planned by multiple signs (visual, verbal, discursive, and mixed). These signs can be of the territorial brand that, in Almeida’s (2018) argument, includes territorial assets (social capital, cultural capital, natural and productive capital, and institutional capital). The concept of territory is shared with the brand when using a web of power relations, which are both agreed and conflicting. However, due to the absence of territorial brand in a broader context in the interdisciplinary literature on typology, such as those concerning regional development, doubts and misunderstandings arise about its types, categories, and classifications.

Territorial brand, in Almeida’s [2] perspective, considers the strategies of social actors in the production and use of the territory from four main elements: brand, territory, territorialities (social actors and brand), and strategic connections. For Aaker [14], a brand is an identifier of distinction between products. According to Raffestin [18], territories are determined by the power relations between social actors. In Almeida’s [2] concept framework, the territorial brand has dual territoriality. On the one hand, the territoriality of the social actors, and on the other hand, the territoriality of the brand [2]. These two elements together create strategic connections [19], bringing other uses and appropriations to the territory [13] and giving new meanings to the lived space [20].

2.3. Place Brand and Territorial Brand Typologies in the Scientific Literature

The place brand topic is a concept worked out by several authors [1,8,9,10] and can easily be found in the scientific literature of branding and marketing scientific journals. However, there are many studies that establish different classifications, such as superior place branding and inferior place branding [21], place brand identity [22], and place physics, place practices, and place personality [23]. Almeida [2] studies place branding and territorial brand separately.

Regarding territorial brand, although defended by Almeida [2], it is not used directly but rather encapsulated in the scientific literature in discussions on place branding in different areas: urban-regional development, communication, tourism, marketing, branding, international relations, public diplomacy, public administration, geography, urban management, and related areas. In fact, the nomenclatures used for a territorial brand are varied: place brand, city brand, territory brand, nation brand, country brand, regional brand, city branding, city marketing, tourism brand, city promotional brand, and others [1,5,6,7,8,9,10,11]. This diversity of denominations is justified by the spatial scales that serve as parameters for these nomenclatures (country, nation, state, region, island, port, territory, square, and street).

2.4. Looking for a Set of Variables to Define the Territorial Brand

Seeking to answer the question “How can territorial brands be classified in the framework of urban-regional development in its multiple visions?”, we tried to identify variables in the scientific literature that can help find a way to classify the territorial brand in the scope of regional development. In order to present a typological classification framework for territorial brands, we adopted the view of urban-regional development. We also considered two macro variables: “the brand” concept, defended by Aaker [14] and Pinho [24], and “the territory” concept, defended by Raffestin [18] and Flores [19]. In the scientific literature, through the definition, it is possible to identify the variables that make up the territorial brand typology, presented and summarized in

Table 1. Variables from the literature review.

Author	Concept	Variable
Val [25]	In systematic studies, intuitive and conceptual types and differences are often used to define categories that contrast with each other.	Typology
Raffestin [18]; Flores [19]	The boundaries of the territory are defined by power relations among social actors (Raffestin, 1993). Territory as a place for strategic connections (Flores, 2006).	Territory
Hall [26]	A connection between something and its meaning. Refers to a way of seeing the world, of expressing the vision of a group of people (social actors).	Territorial representation
Minayo [27]	The ways in which society’s reality can be expressed.
Moscovici [28]	Classification system.
Almeida [29] Almeida [2]	Cultural, economic, social, environmental, and political dimensions are part of development.	Types of developments
Castro [30]	Scales indicate different types of space coverage (country, region, state, city, street, etc.). It can also be a strategy of social actors in perceiving reality as a representation.	Geographic scale
Sabourin [31]	A social or economic agent is an individual or an institution that carries out an activity or maintains relationships within a given territory.	Socials actors
Kotler [32]	Corresponds to the geographical scale on which products are marketed.	Brand scope
Almeida [33]	Corresponds to a list of cities classified according to predetermined criteria (e.g., best cities to live or work, smart cities, sustainable cities, etc.).	Urban ranking
Pecquer [20]	Two territory formats: top-down and bottom-up.	Territorial process
Esteves [34]	A place’s inclination or tendency towards certain areas, such as social, cultural, political, economic, etc.	Vocation or function city
Sampaio [35]	Refers to the consumer group that is targeted in the sale of products. Target segments and target markets are also terms for this demographic group.	Brand audience
Ries and Trout[36]	Place where the brand is in the consumer’s mind.	Brand positioning
Kipnis et al. [37] Guerrero and Andersen [38]	Power as expressed in the relationship between people and social groups.	Power relations
INPI [39]	Brands can be visual, verbal, or mixed.	Brand type
Almeida [2]	The territorial brand is also discursive.
Semprini [40]	Product brands can be viewed from an institutional (long-term) and promotional (short-term) perspective.	Perspective
Kotler et al. [4]; Smyth [41]	Based on the 4 Ps model (product, price, place, and promotion), marketing deals with companies, their products, and services. This includes product logistics, product management, tangible aspects, tactics, and quantitative measurement.	Product management aspect
Tavares [42] Keller [3]	Brand management is the strategic management of the product brand, considering product and brand as distinct elements. Management, relationships between brand and target-consumer audience, intangible aspects, strategy, and qualitative measurement are considered in this concept.	Brand management aspect
Aaker [14]	A logo is the graphic identification of the brand and not the brand itself.	Logo

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Although Table 1 identifies 18 variables that can be used to develop a classification for territorial brands, we can actually use each variable separately since these variables do not follow any hierarchy. Basically, the starting point for identifying the type of territorial brand is unclear. In other words, the variables follow a circuit-like pattern without a beginning or an end.

Almeida argues that logo identification is a component of this classification and that it is necessary to distinguish between that which is merely graphic design—the logo—and that which is the final territorial brand typology, including all variables. Some countries refer to the logo as a territorial brand. However, to speak of a territorial brand, it is necessary, according to Almeida [2], to consider the relationships established or under construction in the context of territorial–regional development.

2.5. Looking for a Set of Dimensions to Define the Territorial Brand

In creating and implementing a territorial brand, it is important to consider the relationships established and under construction in a given territory and the way they are related to regional development. Almeida [2] proposed a model of territorial brand classification, which suggests a relationship between both the brand and territory and discusses two concepts, territorial brand and regional development. In Figure 1, these discussions and concepts lead to a sequence and a hierarchy of procedures to classify the territorial brand with a focus on regional development (TRbrand model—version 1).

To achieve the purpose of the study, the typologies found were used to analyze the 60 territorial brands in

Table 2. Territorial brands analyzed.

Logo	Territorial Brand (60 Brands)
	Brand	Slogan	Country	State	Region	City	Island	Route	Port	Generic Term
	Vale dos Vinhedos (Brazil)	Patrimônio Histórico e Cultural do Rio Grande do Sul			×
	São Paulo (Brazil)	Viva tudo isso!				×
	El Salvador	Great like our people	×
	Colômbia	Colombia. Es pasión	×
	Porto Maravilha (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil)	Not found							×
	Cais do Mauá (Porto Alegre, Brazil)	Cais Mauá de todos							×
	Lisboa (Portugal)	Lado bonito dos negócios			×
	Porto (Portugal)	Porto. Ponto.							×
	Dubai	City where extraordinary things happen				×
	Mônaco	Not found				×
	Las Vegas	What happens in Vegas, stays in Vegas				×
	Caminho de Santiago	El camino francês						×
	New York	I love NY				×
	Fernando de Noronha (Brazil)	Not found					×
	Peru	A country for everyone	×
	Espanha	Tudo debaixo do sol	×
	Portugal	Not found	×
	Pelotas (Brazil)	Sou + Pel				×
	Rio de Janeiro (Brazil)	Marca registrada do Brasil				×
	Brazil	Sensacional	×
	Amsterdan (Alemanha)	I am Amsterdan				×
	Silicon Valley	Not found			×
	Corede VRP (Brazil)	Not found			×
	União Europeia	Not found			×
	Mercosul	Not found			×
	Porto Alegre (Brazil)	Multicultural				×
	Vancouver (Canada)	Not found				×
	Montreal (Canada)	Not found				×
	Toronto (Canada)	Canada’s Downtown				×
	Brasília (Brazil)	Not found				×
	Austrália	Australia Unlimited	×
	Cuba	Autêntica Cuba	×
	Italy	It	×
	Egipt	Where it all begins	×
	Estados Unidos (EUA)	Discover the america and visit The USA	×
	Bahamas	700 islands. A milion stories					×
	China	Like never before	×
	Hong Kong	Asia’s world city				×
	India	Inacredible India	×
	Rio Grande do Sul (Brazil)	Um grande destino		×
	Costa Rica	No Artificial Ingredients	×
	Honduras	Somos para ti	×
	México	Vive hoy, vive tuyo	×
	Russia	O mundo inteiro na Rússia	×
	New Zealand	100% Pure	×
	Japan	Japan. Endless. Discovery	×
Not found	Jerusalem	Not found				×
Not found	Terra Santa	Not found						×
	Rio Grande do Norte, Brasil	Tudo começa aqui		×
Not found	Cape Town, South Africa	Mother City				×
	Melbourne	Melbourne’s Diversity as a Sacred Concept				×
	Praga, República Tcheca	Prague: emotions identity				×
	Moldova	Discover the routes of life	×
	Singapore	Your Singapore	×
	Moscou	Wow Moscou				×
	Canadá	Keep exploring	×
	Genova	More than this				×
	Bolívia	Corazón del Sur	×
	Bulgária	A discovery to share	×
	Eslovênia	Slovenijo? Utim (I feel Slovenia)	×
Smart city, strategic digital city, digital city, and others										×

on different geographical scales.

Based on the 18 variables found in the literature and the discussion of the territorial brand in the context of regional development, 16 dimensions of analysis were identified. The TRbrand model (final version) proposes 13 typologies based on the multiplicity of relationships experienced in the territory and their link with the region and 13 concepts corresponding to these typologies, shown in

Table 3. Description of the typologies found for territorial brands within the scope of regional development.

Territorial Brand Categories	Types of Territorial Brands	Analyze	Concept for Each Brand Category	Analyzed Brands
1—Geographical	Indication of Origin (IP) and Denomination of Origin (DO)	Of the investigated brands, only Vale dos Vinhedos had a geographic certification. According to INPI (2021), only the brands that result from combining a culture’s know-how with the geographical conditions of that region are officially certified. However, not all territorial brands can obtain these certifications because they do not refer to a specific product but to a territorial reputation or another symbolic characteristic.	Geographical territorial brand: a brand that relies on the production of a specific product (cheese, wine, handicrafts, etc.) and is registered in its country of origin.	Vale dos Vinhedos (Brazil)
2—Gender	Male, female, undefined, and friendly	Brand perceptions are influenced by the shape of the logo. According to Perez (2004), straight lines are associated with male brands, while sinuous shapes are associated with female brands. Territorial brands are also influential in shaping perceptions. In addittion to the right angles (male) and sinuous shapes (female), we see that these brands present a certain blurring of right or sinuous angles, and therefore we call them indefinite brands. There are also many brands with multiple colors, but this is not recommended for product brands due to the high cost of reproducing them in graphics. This type of brand is called friendly.	Gender territorial brand: When a brand’s logo has mostly right angles, it is considered masculine. If a logo has curved shapes, it is considered feminine. Logos that do not have a majority of right or sinuous angles are undefined gender brands. “Friendly” territorial brands use straight and sinuous angles, as well as multiple colors, in an attempt to encompass different cultural and territorial identities.	Male’: Lisbon, Monaco, Toronto, Camino de Santiago de Compostela. Female: Brazil, Egypt, Peru. Undefined: Cuba, Porto, Rio de Janeiro, European Union. Friendly: El Salvador, Colombia, São Paulo.
3—Dimensional	Political, cultural, economic, social, environmental, religious and technological	Some brands highlighted their cultural dimensions. Not every brand displays its culture, however. Based on these findings, we posited that brands have multiple dimensions.	Dimensional territorial brand: Brands can be seen from several perspectives, some obvious and others hidden (consciously or unconsciously). Moreover, a brand can have more than one dimension, revealing the interests of actors in a given space.	Political: Brasilia. Cultural: Peru, Spain. Economic: Mercosur, European Union. Environmental: Fernando de Noronha. Religious: Holy Land, Jerusalem. Technological: Silicon Valley. Social: Cais do Mauá (Brazil).
4—Multiple scales	Local, regional, state, national, international	Upon analyzing the brands, we found that they had different scales. However, there were local brands on an international scale, as is the case of São Paulo in Brazil and Porto in Portugal. This means that some territorial brands exist at multiple scales.	Territorial brand by scale: In the production of a territory, social actors have interests that are represented. A territorial brand by scale may be local when its power relations are directed at a smaller scale, as in a city or neighborhood, or it may be national when directed at a larger scale, such as a country; or it may exceed a scale, as in the case of a territorial brand at international level. The use of one or more scales reveals the scope of the relationships among social actors as they produce and use the territory.	Local: Porto Maravilha (RJ, Brazil). Regional: Pelotas (Brazil). State: Rio Grande do Sul. National: Brasilia. International: São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro (Brazil); Monaco, Dubai, Jerusalem
5—Functional or vocational	Port, entrepreneurial, multicultural, technological, tourist, religious, urban revitalization	In some brands, the focus was on the functions (vocation) of the city, such as the port (Porto, Portugal; Porto Maravilha, Brazil) or business incubator (Lisbon, Portugal).	Vocational or functional territorial brand: Providing a role for a territory justifies the actions of social actors, hiding or making less apparent the actions of other groups of social actors. Producing symbolic debates about production and territory ownership is a way of generating conflict.	Port: Porto (Portugal) and Porto Maravilha (Brazil). Entrepreneurial: Lisbon (Portugal) Multicultural: Porto Alegre (Brazil). Technological: Silicon Valley. Tourist: Spain. Religious: The Way of Saint James of Compostela, Jerusalem, Holy Land. Urban revitalization: Business improvement districts (e.g., Times Square, NY)
6—Generic or commodities	Smart city, strategic digital city, sustainable city, compact city (and other terms)	Some of the researched brands emphasize generic terms, such as smart city, making a territory known by this nomenclature.	Generic territorial brand or commodity: In this case, the territory (city) should be viewed from generic perspectives, such as smart or sustainable. Cities using it are those that have not yet established their territorial identity, which makes it more practical to adopt a commodity territorial brand rather than to assume a position that will cause a symbolic conflict between different social actors. This category includes current imaginaries, including technological imaginaries, which are based on desirable and achievable futures.	Smart city: Toronto (Canada) Sustainable city: Fernando de Noronha (Brazil). (and other terms)
7—In crisis	Age (re-branding) or territorial/cultural identity	Some brands frequently change their logos due to their “age” (time on the market) or a dispute over territorial/cultural identity. Such brands are considered to be in crisis.	Territorial brand in crisis: Those that have not established an institutional brand, using brands that have little temporality (in their logo or in relation to their identity)	Egypt, Florianópolis (Brazil)
8—Personified	Indecisive/insecure, temporary/ephemeral/shifting, innovative, changing, secure/constant/resilient, fluid/modern, emotional, mysterious, rebellious, articulate, exotic, luxurious	Product brands commonly use a personification strategy to become closer to consumers, and we perceive that this strategy is also used in territorial brands. Some are more unpredictable, constantly changing their brand design; others are more secure, retaining the same brand since the first version; the temporary ones are those marked by social actors that, in practice, are unaware of the concept of territorial brand and its management (place branding). The mysterious brands use exotic aspects and myths of their culture. Territorial luxury brands are divided into triple-A, double-A, and just A (similar to product brands), referring to the luxury exhibited somehow in the territory.	Personified territorial brand: The brand that displays a human characteristic, such as insecure, secure, innovative, mutant, mysterious, and so on.	Safe territorial brands: Spain and Portugal. Temporary territorial brand: Porto Alegre (Brazil). Exotic territorial brand: India. Luxury territorial brands: Dubai and Monaco. Mutant territorial brand: Melbourne
9—Identity	Established or under construction	As in the case of Porto Alegre (Brazil), brands were used as a strategy to establish a new identity for the territory. There are territorial brands that can be identified based on their identity.	Territorial brand by identity: A territorial brand is a place where social actors compete for the appropriation of the territory’s identity. Brands compete for hegemonic identity while at the same time maintaining it. In this scenario, more than one brand can be mentioned simultaneously, as well as the cultural and political issues of the territory.	Under construction: Porto Alegre (Brazil). Established: Portugal.
10—Reputation	(n types of stereotypes and reputations)	Based on the analysis of the brands, we found instances of stereotypes spreading due to the reputation of their territories.	Territorial brand by reputation: These are brands that create reputations, positive or negative, for the territories, justifying the dynamics in force in the territory.	Las Vegas (drug city). Holy Land (land blessed by God). Brazil (country of football).
11—Territorial representation	Material/immaterial	The logos of some brands exalt material aspects of their territories, such as beaches, statues, urban furniture, etc. Still, some brands used, in their logos, symbols of materialism (symbolic), such as culture.	Territorial brand by representation: When using symbolic aspects, brands can represent territories both materially and immaterially. Generally, it is more common for territorial brands to use immaterial representations recurrently associated with tourism. In their use of landscape fragments, they refer to the material representation of the territory.	Fernando de Noronha (Brazil) Brasília e São Paulo (Brazil). Porto (Portugal) Australia, El Salvador, Peru, Montreal, Dubai The Way of Saint James of Compostela, New York.
12—Development	Urban, territorial, regional, economic, cultural, social, environmental, and technological	Analyzing the brands, we found that there are different types of development in each of them.	Territorial brand by development: A territorial brand typically uses more than one development type. In the production, use, and appropriation of the territory, this choice varies depending on the interests of social actors.	All brands analyzed
13—Situation	Organic, planned, occasional, and out of necessity	The formation of some brands occurs without prior planning; others are planned; some are born out of an event that occurs in the market; others are born out of a need. Organic territorial brands develop from reputations and stereotypes. When the brand is planned, a persuasive structure is created that supports and legitimizes the discourse of a given group of actors. An occasional territorial brand uses a specific circumstance to link itself to a particular area. In a time of crisis, be it dimensional or scalar, the territorial brand serves as a strategy for social actors to emerge from it.	Territorial brand by situation: Territorial brands result from social actors taking advantage of certain circumstances to create them. Brands are not designed in advance; rather, they are created in response to a given situation.	The organic type was present in all brands. Planned territorial brand: Dubai, Lisbon, Peru. Occasional territorial brand: Porto Alegre and Rio de Janeiro (Brazil). Territorial brand out of necessity: Spain.

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It is important to note that the typology variable was excluded from the model because it is one of the objectives of the study, i.e., to classify territorial brands. Val [25] argues that typology is a method of categorization based on differences in the definitions of categories. Hence, the typology of territorial brands we propose includes the study of territorial and regional factors that are incorporated into territorial brands, with the objective of classifying them by types and categories in order to differentiate them from each other.

Almeida [2] argues that, in order to have a typological proposition for these brands, one must understand the (internal and external) dynamics and the relationships within these lived spaces [18]. The territorial representation variable, according to Hall [26] and Moscovici [28], is a set of connected images about the territory. These images are produced by a set of social actors. As stated by Kipnis et al. [37] and Guerrero and Andersen [38], when a group of social actors wants their territory to be known by such representation, they establish power relations (another variable) so that their view of the territory becomes dominant.

It is also important to understand the dimensions of development that the territorial brand will create over time and its relationship with social actors (another variable). In Sabourin’s [31] view, social actors can be individuals, institutions, or groups of people. There is another variable, the territorial process, which can be top-down or bottom-up [20]. Almeida [2] believes the dynamics taking place in the territory produce various types of development (variable). The geographic scale (another variable) helps us understand the reality [30] and the scope of the brand [32]. A territorial brand can be in, over, and beyond the territory that it represents, according to Almeida [2]. Therefore, the geographical scale of a brand is always of interest to social actors. By exposing the actors, their intentions in using and appropriating the territory are revealed. Another variable, urban ranking, arises from these intentions. This variable may or not be present in the territorial brand [2]. Almeida [33] explains that the urban ranking also captures the intentions of social actors and is another way of finding evidence of the interests of actors in a particular territory. The urban ranking leads to brand positioning.

Positioning refers to the place a brand occupies in people’s minds, according to Ries and Trout [36]. This creates a vocation or function (variable) for the territory, as argued by Esteves [34]. The positioning and vocation of the territory influence the formulation of the brand’s slogan [3,43]. In Iasbeck’s [43] perspective, the slogan is a short phrase that helps to convey the brand’s mission and is present in its positioning. However, we have observed that in product brands, a slogan is often associated with the brand, but that is not always the case for territorial brands.

Brands are developed and created for a target audience [35]. This audience is whom for which the brand was developed and created. Most of the time, the target audience and social actors are hidden in the case of the territorial brand, which is why the territory has the leading role and also why the territory is seen as a social actor. Almeida [2] studied the power relations at play in the territorial brand and confirmed their existence in the context of regional development. In Brazil, product brands can be visual, verbal, and mixed, according to the National Institute of Intellectual Property [39]. Almeida [2] added this view to include the discursive type in the understanding of territorial brands.

The proposed classification model includes two additional variables. Considering marketing as an external relationship and branding as an internal relationship with the brand and its audience, the aspect variable leads to storytelling and to discussions between marketing and branding. Moreover, the marketing aspect, derived from Kotler [32], implies a quantitative analysis, while the branding aspect [44] represents a qualitative analysis. Storytelling is the act of telling stories, according to Oliveira [11]. As stories build the narratives of product brands, it was discovered that this variable also exists in territorial brands. Finally, we observe the presence of the logo variable, which is a graphic representation of the brand. This variable is not usually found in territorial brands. Its absence leads us to two arguments: (1) that the brand of a specific territory usually originates from its narratives and not always from the intentional planning of a group of social actors; and (2) following the logic of Anholt [1], that the competition between places in terms of reputation and image does not necessarily require a logo (graphic image). It is this set of interconnected variables that forms the model proposed in this study (Figure 1).

3. Materials and Methods

To achieve the objectives described in the introduction section of this research, this study applied qualitative content analysis because, according to Schreier [45], it is one of several methods currently available for analyzing data and interpreting their meaning. Moreover, Powers and Knapp [46] defend that this is a general term for a number of different strategies used to analyze text or “a method for identifying, analyzing and reporting patterns (themes) within data” [47] (p. 79). Content analysis is a systematic, objective, and quantitative method for studying communication messages and developing inferences concerning the relationship between messages and their environment [48]. It is a research method that follows a systematic and objective procedure to describe and quantify phenomena [45]. It is a systematic approach to coding and classification used to explore large amounts of textual information discretely to determine trends and patterns in the words used, their frequency, their relationships, and the structures and discourses of communication [49]. The value of qualitative description lies not only in the knowledge that can originate from it but also because it is a vehicle for presenting and addressing meanings and robust findings [50]. Some authors even consider content analysis as a type of narrative analysis [51].

The 60 brands analyzed in this research were retrieved from searches in several scientific databases (referenced in the titles and abstracts of the articles) and newspaper articles on branding, marketing, place branding, and administration. Each territorial brand was chosen after locating some media study or communication about it. As a result, we ended up with 60 territorial brands with different geographical scales (Figure 2).

Version 1 of the proposed model (Figure 1) was only applied to each brand after selecting the set of brands to be analyzed. In Excel, a table was created which analyzed the 60 brands based on the hypothetico-inductive method [52]. In Popper [52], theories are formulated to explain gaps in scientific knowledge, and deductive inferences are derived from the hypotheses.

However, the research problem emphasized: How can a classification for territorial brands be created within the scope of territorial and regional development? In that sense, the study aims to develop a classification model for the territorial brand in terms of territorial and regional development. It was assumed that if product brands have a classification [14,39], then territorial brands can also have one, as long as the scope and focus of such classification are considered. This means that these territorial brands can have classifications within the scope of territorial-regional development that are different from those of other contexts, such as public diplomacy, for example.

Using Excel software, the variables in Figure 1 were placed at the top of the table, while the name of each territorial brand analyzed was placed on the side. The TRbrand model variables were applied to each Excel line corresponding to a territorial brand. Using the 18 variables found in the literature, 16 dimensions of territorial brand analysis were developed. After interpreting the set of territorial brands, we realized that they could also be divided into different categories and types. Thus, it was necessary to add variables to the model in a hypothetico-deductive form (dimensions of analysis). These dimensions define the types of territorial brands. A column referring to the type of territorial brand was added to the above-mentioned Excel table, thereby producing a classification model comprised of 13 typologies (and their concepts), which constitutes the results of this research (Figure 3).

Territorial brands are grouped into categories, enabling concepts to be created about these various types of brands (Table 2).

Our typological classification model for territorial brands is called the TRbrand Classification Model as a result of the categories we created. By identifying different types of territorial brands, these could be separated in a more specific manner (e.g., in the category of geographical territorial brands, there are two types of brands, geographical indication and denomination of origin; in the category of territorial brands by scale we have five types of territorial brands: local, regional, state, national, international, and so on).

4. Results

The model presented in this study was developed by selecting the brands and separating them by geographic scale. This procedure allowed us to observe the usage (or lack thereof) of the territorial brand logo, its verbal version (brand name), slogan, and the scale to which each of the 60 territorial brands analyzed refers (Table 2).

We arrived at Table 2 by applying the TRbrand model to the various categories and types of territorial brands. Each description is followed by a list of the territorial brands that were analyzed to reach these results, and the logos of the brands are shown in Table 3. By focusing only on the logo of the brands, the relationships between the brands and the space lived and produced by the brand cannot be analyzed. The application of the TRbrand Classification Model confirms the existence of relationships between brands and territories in the context of regional development highlighted by Almeida [2], as well as discussions of place branding highlighted by Cidrais [5], Dinis [6], Kavaratzis [7], Kavaratzis and Ashworth [8], Anholt [1], and Vela et al. [18].

The 60 brands analyzed (Table 2) were compared with the 18 variables of version 1 of the TRbrand model (Figure 1), thereby uncovering the 16 dimensions by which these brands were analyzed. This procedure led to the generation of 13 territorial brand typologies that support the TRbrand Classification Model (Figure 3). Therefore, the proposed model consists of three blocks: starting point, variables and dimensions, and the typology of territorial brands.

5. Conclusions

From Almeida [2] derives the idea of territorial brand as it relates to regional development. It considers the relationship between brands and territories. Territorial brands, too, have this same type of relationship if they are delimited by power relations. Understanding these dynamic reveals that the territorial brand in regional development contains traces of power relations. This implies that the territorial brand classification, in addition to organizing the categories and types of brands for specialized literature, also includes an analysis of the power relations that exist within a territory. In this logic, both the territorial brand and the territory are social actors. In Porto Alegre, for example, the Multicity brand is, at first glance, considered a tourist brand; however, when one examines it closely, one can discern the political relations between its social actors. The “multicultural” argument maintained by the Brazilian brand exposes the power structure of culture that continues to develop in the area of cultural studies. The brand of Lisbon, on the other hand, is based on economics, showing the “beautiful side of business” in a city known for its culture and architecture. As discussed in Almeida [2], these are aspects involving territorial brands. Still, according to Almeida [2], the set of cultural symbols of a territory is transformed into a brand through an engaging discourse of power relations that goes beyond brand logos. The territorial brand needs to coexist with other brands on the same territory, demonstrating that these are strategic and competitive discourses of the social actors in the use and appropriation of the collectively produced space.

Within the context of territorial–regional development, the objective was met, and a classification system for territorial brands was developed. Through the literature review, the variables analyzed allowed us to develop this territorial brand classification. A territorial brand is a statement of a position taken by a group of social actors based on a specified vision. The territorialities of these actors refer to the representations and uses of the territory and, consequently, to the types and uses of territorial brands.

Additionally, territorial brands are designed so that only parts of a planned discourse are visible and not the whole discourse that refers to the real intentions of the social actors in the production of the territory, e.g., political, economic, and symbolic-cultural capital issues. When the territorial brand is intentionally managed and planned, it can also be viewed as a strategy of the social actors when it comes to using and appropriating the territory, or even as a social actor itself.

The study showed that it was possible to develop a typological classification for territorial brands in the context of urban and regional development. This classification proved that territorial brands are not all equal; rather, they have differences that served as the basis for the creation of the TRbrand Classification Model. Moreover, the deepening of relationships between brands and territories, whether established or under construction, is a great advance for science. It is not about perceiving the territorial brand as a management tool for building reputation and image for places. The point is to perceive the territorial brand as another social actor, along with the territory itself, which maintains and creates the power relations within the collectively produced space. Through these relationships, established or under construction, territorial brands can differentiate themselves and create their own category. The study also brings about a clear, practical, social contextual contribution, as it provides a clear picture of how to classify a territorial brand and allows destination managers and urban planners to describe the type of brand they want and the type of role those social actors should play in brand designation. In addition, the proposed model identifies the types of power relations that social actors can maintain. Various types of development result from this understanding, including local, territorial, regional, cultural, technological, economic, tourism, etc.

5.1. Research Findings

The main finding is that territorial brands can be classified according to different types. The established territorial brand categories and types form a classification model (TRbrand Classification Model). From the classification model, 16 dimensions of analysis were identified, which served as the basis for the formulation of 13 territorial brand typologies, which in turn led to 13 specific concepts. The TRbrand Classification Model was built through these unique concepts of different categories and types of territorial brands. According to the model, classifications can be individual, overlapping, or hegemonic. The proposed typologies can provide other, more in-depth readings of the socio-territorial processes in which territorial brands play a role. Therefore, it is important to classify these typologies in order to understand the characteristics of these brands, as well as the possible uses and connections of social actors in the production and use of the territory.

5.2. Research Contributions

The main contribution is the fact that the findings of this study generate a territorial brand classification model in the context of territorial–regional development. There are also contributions to science and interdisciplinary studies in the deepening of theoretical-empirical discussions on territorial brands, also included in the discussions on place branding and regional development. In the process of developing new theories and knowledge on this topic, new concepts and typologies will be created, which in turn will advance science. In this discussion, we contribute to other readings of power relations and transversal territorial processes of social actors in the use and appropriation of the territory. Different types of territorial brands coexist in society, generated by different power relations, whose interests in their creation and management also differ.

TRbrand’s classification can also be used for:

(1)

Individual classification of territorial brands;

(2)

Overlapping classifications, where territories have more than one territorial brand;

(3)

Showing that territorial brands have a hegemonic classification too;

(4)

Showing the interests of the social actors on the territory who adopt a territorial brand;

(5)

Emphasizing the leading role of the territory through a territorial brand.

These ways of using TRbrand lead to distinct discussions within regional development, highlighting the complexity of the topics concerned.

In this study, 13 categories of territorial brands were derived from the variables used for defining a territorial brand in the context of regional development. In this classification, we see that territorial brands are not all the same, reflecting the interests of their stakeholders in their creation. The city of Porto, for example, could be positioned as “Porto é Porto e ponto” (brand slogan), which uses a system with 60 pictograms that attempt to encompass territorial diversity. It highlights the port function of the city and exalts its symbolic and physical value, describing it as a vocational/functional territorial brand. A major flaw is that the positioning itself reveals a relationship of power focused on a brand that is directed at a port city, which is not always recognized for its function. Porto’s case deserves attention because, starting from a local scale, its territorial brand reached international recognition because of its exposure.

With the variables that make up the TRbrand model, it is possible to analyze the territories through their territorial brands but from the viewpoint of regional development. The 16 analysis dimensions used in the TRbrand model serve multiple purposes: they are used to classify the territorial brands; secondly, to analyze each territorial brand type and category based on the TRbrand model; and finally, to analyze territorial brands considering all the TRbrand variables. By contributing work, it contributes valuable insights to developers of public policies. Moreover, these insights can influence public governance decisions and public diplomacy programs, which aim to achieve sustainable development of territories regardless of their spacial scale.

5.3. Research Limitations

Despite the clear methodological and practical contributions, this investigation also has its limitations; as this is a recent topic, future lines of research could carry out a bibliometric analysis study to explore new scientific publications in this area. This study presents the Territorial Brand (TRbrand) Classification Model applied to 60 territorial brands with a specific geographical scope; future lines of research can apply the model to other geographical territories.

Due to the limited space of the document, it was not possible to conduct a detailed analysis of all of the analyzed brands. Future research should detail each of the territorial brands analyzed.