A Study on the Motivation of Older Adults to Participate in Exercise or Physical Fitness Activities
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Hypothesis Development
2.1. Physical Fitness
2.2. Group Identification
2.3. Empathy and Sympathy
2.4. Ageism
2.5. Hypothetical Inference of the Effect of Group Identification on Physical Fitness in Older Adults
2.6. Theory of Planned Behavior and Physical Fitness in Older Adults
3. Research Methods
Measurement Model
4. Results
5. Discussion
5.1. Theoretical Contribution
5.2. Limitations and Future Studies
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A. Questionnaire
Construct | Question |
---|---|
Group identification |
|
Empathy |
|
Sympathy |
|
Ageism |
|
Attitude toward physical fitness |
|
Subjective norms |
|
Perceived behavioural control |
|
Intention toward physical fitness |
|
References
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Construct | Definition and Operations | Source of Inquiry |
---|---|---|
Group identification | Self-categorisation and social recognition theories propose that people have different selves and display different identities based on circumstances and representation [17]. When people focus on social identity, they consider themselves to be members of certain groups and tend to view their group more favourably than they view other groups [18,19]. When an older adult experiences a vivid self-image during ageing, this image of him/herself as elderly may increase the emotional attachment to other older adults who are the same age and have similar physical functions [20,21]. At CGHCV, physical fitness activities can be either individual or group activities. Physical fitness activities allow individuals to identify with people their own age. As a result, individuals can choose the activities that suit them best and enjoy exercising. Moreover, individuals may enjoy having companions of the same age during these activities. Group identification allows the older adult to convey compassion towards other older adults and enhances their motivation to participate in physical fitness activities. | [22] |
Empathy | Emotional contagion is the essential manifestation of empathy [23] and can be interpreted as the frontier of empathy [24]. Empathy has both cognitive and emotional components. It is the ability to apprehend the emotions of others [25] and to acknowledge and experience the feelings of others [26,27]. At CGHCV, empathy is the perception of the cognitive and emotional dimensions of other people that elderly participants experience when they engage in exercise or physical fitness activities [28]. The identity of older adults as members of a robust social community may prompt others to understand and share the physical and functional challenges of the elderly, thus inducing altruistic behaviour. | [29] |
Sympathy | Sympathy emphasises the consistency between the emotional state of a person and the emotional state of the target. Sympathy does not require the emotional response to be the same. On the contrary, sympathy includes evaluating one’s feelings about the emotional state of another person (as in [30]). Sympathy relies on attention and other cognitive mechanisms. The interaction between attention and emotion drives the generation of guided feelings [31]. We intended to explore the effect of the emotional proximity of older adults’ empathy on cognition and problem solving during the fitness activities and to approach behaviour-intention issues with a sympathetic attitude. | [29] |
Ageism | Discrimination is the result of stereotyping. It describes any basic attitudes and structural bias that acts against the members of a specific group [9]. This bias leads to various positive and negative evaluations. Stereotypes have produced conflicting results [32]. Studies have found that some of the important psychological and social needs of the elderly are met through self-expression of their values. Providing meaningful participation during retirement and promoting interaction in the community and society are vital to the well-being of elderly individuals [33,34]. This study aimed to explore misunderstandings about older adults caused by stereotyping and correct impressions regarding the physical fitness of the elderly. Such misunderstandings include the following: older adults cannot participate in physical training; older adults are rather stingy with money; older adults are unwilling to pay for physical training. | [22] |
Attitude toward physical fitness | Cognitive behavioural control is the only component directly interacting with intentions and actual behaviours [35,36]. Older adults may face physical, psychological, and demographic barriers to participation in exercise or physical fitness activities. Cognitive behavioural control is widely used to promote the understanding of certain health behaviours. This study explored the physical and psychological barriers that older adults face when performing physical fitness activities with the aim of encouraging them to maintain physical fitness activities. | [37] |
Subjective norms | Subjective norms are factors that influence an individual’s behaviour, such as the effect of the behaviours of relatives and friends on the behaviours of an individual and the tendency to copy the behaviours of relatives and friends [38]. Regular physical fitness habits or the involvement of family members will affect the sustainability of physical fitness. This study explores the impact of such factors on the physical fitness of older adults. | [37] |
Perceived behavioural control | Perceived behavioural control is the extent to which an individual perceives him/herself to be able to perform a particular behaviour. It can be divided into the following aspects: the degree of control an individual has over behaviour and whether or not an individual can perform the behaviour. Older adults are concerned about whether they can access the necessary resources and opportunities when participating in physical fitness activities. Such access will better able older adults to engage in physical fitness activities. | [37] |
Intention toward physical fitness | Studies have found that intention predicts motivational behaviour regarding physical training [39,40]. Behavioural intention is considered a key variable in behaviour that affects the likelihood of a person engaging in behaviour being able to complete the behaviour [41]. When older adults believe they are able to obtain opportunities to participate in physical fitness activities, their personal behaviour is mainly predicted by behavioural intention. This study examines whether the intention to participate in physical fitness activities can increase social identification or achieve health goals. | [37] |
Variables | Subgroup | N (%) |
---|---|---|
Total | - | 101 (100.0) |
Gender | Male | 25 (24.8) |
Female | 76 (75.2) | |
50–59 | 2 (2.0) | |
Age | 60–69 | 8 (7.9) |
70–79 | 43 (42.6) | |
(Mean = 78.81 years) | 80–89 | 38 (37.6) |
90–99 | 8 (7.9) | |
≥100 | 2 (2.0) | |
Graduate level | 10 (9.9) | |
Education | University (4 years) | 44 (43.6) |
High school | 30 (29.7) | |
Junior high school | 10 (9.9) | |
<Junior high school | 7 (6.9) |
Construct | AD | EA | EH | EI | EM | GI | HA | PA | SJ | SY |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AD1 | 0.735 | 0.451 | 0.067 | 0.217 | 0.182 | 0.012 | 0.349 | 0.098 | 0.192 | 0.291 |
AD2 | 0.818 | 0.510 | 0.102 | 0.234 | 0.273 | 0.207 | 0.390 | 0.149 | 0.283 | 0.431 |
AD3 | 0.685 | 0.373 | 0.040 | 0.181 | 0.198 | 0.020 | 0.243 | −0.034 | 0.139 | 0.310 |
AD4 | 0.716 | 0.172 | 0.063 | 0.187 | 0.310 | 0.118 | 0.326 | 0.083 | 0.312 | 0.337 |
AD5 | 0.710 | 0.164 | 0.022 | 0.189 | 0.211 | 0.062 | 0.284 | 0.070 | 0.165 | 0.312 |
EA1 | 0.535 | 0.847 | 0.129 | 0.332 | 0.473 | 0.272 | 0.492 | 0.165 | 0.522 | 0.476 |
EA2 | 0.162 | 0.708 | 0.523 | 0.595 | 0.220 | 0.521 | 0.497 | 0.595 | 0.136 | 0.345 |
EA3 | 0.454 | 0.874 | 0.145 | 0.321 | 0.408 | 0.235 | 0.478 | 0.190 | 0.437 | 0.442 |
EH1 | 0.147 | 0.213 | 0.844 | 0.694 | 0.298 | 0.386 | 0.167 | 0.593 | 0.236 | 0.335 |
EH2 | 0.034 | 0.385 | 0.900 | 0.798 | 0.245 | 0.405 | 0.301 | 0.782 | 0.134 | 0.239 |
EH3 | 0.061 | 0.311 | 0.950 | 0.765 | 0.282 | 0.395 | 0.245 | 0.792 | 0.126 | 0.338 |
EI1 | 0.267 | 0.584 | 0.744 | 0.931 | 0.447 | 0.520 | 0.468 | 0.794 | 0.273 | 0.560 |
EI2 | 0.338 | 0.319 | 0.648 | 0.812 | 0.329 | 0.327 | 0.289 | 0.498 | 0.299 | 0.436 |
EI3 | 0.171 | 0.476 | 0.846 | 0.937 | 0.381 | 0.497 | 0.382 | 0.811 | 0.235 | 0.436 |
EM1 | 0.278 | 0.479 | 0.353 | 0.488 | 0.765 | 0.446 | 0.450 | 0.363 | 0.483 | 0.594 |
EM2 | 0.308 | 0.384 | 0.122 | 0.265 | 0.876 | 0.502 | 0.436 | 0.134 | 0.648 | 0.597 |
EM3 | 0.299 | 0.302 | 0.241 | 0.324 | 0.896 | 0.406 | 0.549 | 0.276 | 0.496 | 0.651 |
EM4 | 0.233 | 0.379 | 0.299 | 0.392 | 0.916 | 0.519 | 0.462 | 0.316 | 0.569 | 0.699 |
EM5 | 0.300 | 0.423 | 0.315 | 0.427 | 0.908 | 0.459 | 0.563 | 0.310 | 0.575 | 0.714 |
GI1 | 0.139 | 0.357 | 0.365 | 0.441 | 0.524 | 0.853 | 0.418 | 0.410 | 0.310 | 0.433 |
GI2 | 0.077 | 0.357 | 0.287 | 0.366 | 0.345 | 0.742 | 0.218 | 0.262 | 0.296 | 0.349 |
GI3 | 0.098 | 0.379 | 0.430 | 0.461 | 0.443 | 0.898 | 0.433 | 0.383 | 0.233 | 0.475 |
HA1 | 0.326 | 0.543 | 0.388 | 0.517 | 0.405 | 0.384 | 0.864 | 0.500 | 0.088 | 0.511 |
HA2 | 0.382 | 0.384 | −0.048 | 0.079 | 0.504 | 0.299 | 0.677 | −0.045 | 0.606 | 0.345 |
PA1 | 0.109 | 0.341 | 0.668 | 0.679 | 0.276 | 0.433 | 0.316 | 0.857 | 0.104 | 0.342 |
PA2 | 0.059 | 0.342 | 0.796 | 0.700 | 0.231 | 0.384 | 0.249 | 0.914 | 0.142 | 0.268 |
PA3 | 0.075 | 0.309 | 0.683 | 0.653 | 0.284 | 0.354 | 0.354 | 0.914 | 0.127 | 0.276 |
PA4 | 0.104 | 0.359 | 0.699 | 0.720 | 0.301 | 0.354 | 0.282 | 0.936 | 0.154 | 0.276 |
PA5 | 0.158 | 0.466 | 0.802 | 0.851 | 0.352 | 0.424 | 0.395 | 0.909 | 0.219 | 0.421 |
SJ1 | 0.258 | 0.367 | 0.149 | 0.191 | 0.517 | 0.277 | 0.303 | 0.067 | 0.872 | 0.280 |
SJ2 | 0.277 | 0.455 | 0.270 | 0.372 | 0.597 | 0.331 | 0.360 | 0.275 | 0.920 | 0.390 |
SJ3 | 0.280 | 0.309 | −0.024 | 0.149 | 0.547 | 0.241 | 0.325 | 0.027 | 0.828 | 0.385 |
SY1 | 0.357 | 0.431 | 0.322 | 0.487 | 0.649 | 0.518 | 0.473 | 0.362 | 0.385 | 0.881 |
SY2 | 0.522 | 0.392 | 0.083 | 0.267 | 0.644 | 0.298 | 0.568 | 0.071 | 0.416 | 0.775 |
SY3 | 0.314 | 0.459 | 0.415 | 0.526 | 0.605 | 0.472 | 0.463 | 0.403 | 0.247 | 0.859 |
SY4 | 0.387 | 0.479 | 0.308 | 0.522 | 0.632 | 0.417 | 0.399 | 0.348 | 0.315 | 0.871 |
AVE | Composite Reliability | Construct | AD | EA | EH | EI | EM | GI | HA | PA | SJ | SY |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0.539 | 0.854 | AD | 0.788 | |||||||||
0.661 | 0.853 | EA | 0.467 | 0.738 | ||||||||
0.808 | 0.926 | EH | 0.086 | 0.342 | 0.880 | |||||||
0.801 | 0.923 | EI | 0.277 | 0.525 | 0.839 | 0.876 | ||||||
0.764 | 0.942 | EM | 0.324 | 0.449 | 0.305 | 0.433 | 0.921 | |||||
0.694 | 0.871 | GI | 0.129 | 0.434 | 0.439 | 0.510 | 0.534 | 0.781 | ||||
0.602 | 0.749 | HA | 0.443 | 0.608 | 0.268 | 0.430 | 0.565 | 0.443 | 0.352 | |||
0.822 | 0.958 | PA | 0.113 | 0.405 | 0.809 | 0.801 | 0.320 | 0.431 | 0.354 | 0.946 | ||
0.764 | 0.906 | SJ | 0.308 | 0.443 | 0.179 | 0.294 | 0.635 | 0.331 | 0.378 | 0.168 | 0.849 | |
0.718 | 0.910 | SY | 0.464 | 0.519 | 0.336 | 0.533 | 0.747 | 0.508 | 0.563 | 0.353 | 0.403 | 0.868 |
Hypothesis | Path | Original Sample (O) | Sample Mean (M) | Standard Error (STERR) | T Statistics (|O/STERR|) | p Value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
H1 | GI -> HA | 0.194 | 0.190 | 0.122 | 1.593 | |
H2a | GI -> EM | 0.534 | 0.541 | 0.078 | 6.824 | *** |
H2b | EM -> HA | 0.272 | 0.259 | 0.138 | 1.964 | * |
H3a | GI -> SY | 0.508 | 0.521 | 0.080 | 6.369 | *** |
H3b | SY -> HA | 0.138 | 0.142 | 0.147 | 0.944 | |
H4a | GI -> AD | 0.129 | 0.154 | 0.115 | 1.123 | |
H4b | AD -> HA | 0.266 | 0.287 | 0.097 | 2.743 | ** |
H5 | HA -> EA | 0.513 | 0.520 | 0.105 | 4.905 | *** |
H6 | HA -> EI | 0.044 | 0.054 | 0.075 | 0.583 | |
H7 | EI -> EH | 0.093 | 0.088 | 0.254 | 0.368 | |
H8 | EA -> EI | 0.179 | 0.176 | 0.087 | 2.060 | * |
H9a | SJ -> EI | 0.081 | 0.084 | 0.066 | 1.233 | |
H9b | SJ -> EA | 0.249 | 0.254 | 0.091 | 2.729 | ** |
H10 | PA -> EI | 0.699 | 0.691 | 0.075 | 9.385 | *** |
H11 | PA -> EH | 0.380 | 0.379 | 0.098 | 3.895 | *** |
H12 | EI Gender -> EH | 0.566 | 0.575 | 0.286 | 1.976 | * |
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Tsai, T.-H.; Wong, A.M.; Lee, H.-F.; Tseng, K.C. A Study on the Motivation of Older Adults to Participate in Exercise or Physical Fitness Activities. Sustainability 2022, 14, 6355. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14106355
Tsai T-H, Wong AM, Lee H-F, Tseng KC. A Study on the Motivation of Older Adults to Participate in Exercise or Physical Fitness Activities. Sustainability. 2022; 14(10):6355. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14106355
Chicago/Turabian StyleTsai, Tsai-Hsuan, Alice M. Wong, Hsiu-Feng Lee, and Kevin C. Tseng. 2022. "A Study on the Motivation of Older Adults to Participate in Exercise or Physical Fitness Activities" Sustainability 14, no. 10: 6355. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14106355