Assessing Environmental Attitudes and Cognitive Achievement within 9 Years of Informal Earth Education
Abstract
:1. Introduction
Objectives of the Study
- How do the 2-MEV subscales and the NEP relate based on a large, age-homogeneous but state-diverse sample?
- What changes does the three-day residential earth education program induce on attitude and knowledge scores with regard to the behavioral indicator Y key?
- How does attitude affect knowledge scores and behavior (Y key)? To what extend can we confirm our postulated structural equation model in a state comparison (AZ, PA, and LA)?
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants and Procedures
2.2. Earthkeepers Program
2.3. Instruments
2.4. Statistical Analyses
3. Results
3.1. How Do the 2-MEV Subscales and the NEP Relate Based on a Large, Age-Homogeneous but State-Diverse Sample?
3.2. What Changes Does the Three-Day Residential Earth Education Program Induce on Attitude and Knowledge Scores with Regard to the Behavioral Indicator Y Key?
3.3. How Does Attitude Affect Knowledge Scores and Behavior (Y Key)? To What Extend Can We Confirm Our Postulated Structural Equation Model in a State Comparison (AZ, PA, and LA)?
4. Discussion
4.1. Preservation as the Strong Subscale of the 2-MEV-NEP Comparison
4.2. Effects of Attitude and a Behavior-Indicator (Y Key) on Knowledge Gains, and the Y Key as a Behavior-Measurement for Upper Elementary School Students
4.3. Effects of the Earth Education Program Earthkeepers on Attitude and Knowledge
4.4. Study Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Questions | Multiple Choice Answers | |
---|---|---|
1 | Only _________ can turn sinlight energy into food. |
|
2 | Which of the following shows a food chain inproper oder? |
|
3 | Which of the following would there be the greatest number of in a food chain (munchline)? |
|
4 | Which of the following is most true |
|
5 | The materials that everything is made of: |
|
6 | “I can do just one thing wihtout affecting anything else.” This statement is: |
|
7 | Which of the following is most true? |
|
8 | If a place is now a desert, |
|
9 | Where do plants get the energy they need to live and grow? |
|
10 | Take a look at you pencil. Where the materials that make your pencil ever part of something else? |
|
11 | Animals use energy that helps their bodies to live and grow. They get that energy directly from: |
|
12 | People use energy that helps their bodies to live and grow. They get that energy directly from: |
|
13 | Imagine a ship has wrecked at sea spilling toxic chemicals into the ocean. Could those chemicals end up inside your body? |
|
References
- Schultz, P.W.; Shriver, C.; Tabanico, J.J.; Khazian, A.M. Implicit connections with nature. J. Environ. Psychol. 2004, 24, 31–42. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
- Chakravarti, D.; Eagly, A.H.; Chaiken, S. The Psychology of Attitudes. J. Mark. Res. 1997, 34, 298. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hines, J.M.; Hungerford, H.R.; Tomera, A.N. Analysis and Synthesis of Research on Responsible Environmental Behavior: A Meta-Analysis. J. Environ. Educ. 1987, 18, 1–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schultz, P.W. Inclusion with Nature: The Psychology of Human-Nature Relations. In Psychology of Sustainable Development; Schmuck, P., Schultz, P.W., Eds.; Kluwer Academic Publishers: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 2002; pp. 61–78. [Google Scholar]
- Munoz, F.; Bogner, F.; Clement, P.; De Carvalho, G.S. Teachers’ conceptions of nature and environment in 16 countries. J. Environ. Psychol. 2009, 29, 407–413. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
- Carman, C.J. Dimensions of environmental policy support in the United States. Soc. Sci. Q. 1998, 79, 717–733. [Google Scholar]
- Pierce, J.C.; Lovrich, N.P.J. Belief systems concerning the environment: The general public, attentive publics, and state legislators. Political Behav. 1980, 2, 259–286. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Xiao, C.; Dunlap, R.E. Validating a Comprehensive Model of Environmental Concern Cross-Nationally: A U.S.-Canadian Comparison. Soc. Sci. Q. 2007, 88, 471–493. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bogner, F.X.; Wiseman, M. Toward Measuring Adolescent Environmental Perception. Eur. Psychol. 1999, 4, 139–151. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Milfont, T.L.; Duckitt, J. The structure of environmental attitudes: A first- and second-order confirmatory factor analysis. J. Environ. Psychol. 2004, 24, 289–303. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Thompson, S.C.G.; Barton, M.A. Ecocentric and anthropocentric attitudes toward the environment. J. Environ. Psychol. 1994, 14, 149–157. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stern, P.C.; Dietz, T. The Value Basis of Environmental Concern. J. Soc. Issues 1994, 50, 65–84. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schultz, P.W.; Zelezny, L. Values as predictors of environmental attitudes: Evidence for consistency across 14 countries. J. Environ. Psychol. 1999, 19, 255–265. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
- Torkar, G.; Bogner, F.X. Environmental values and environmental concern. Environ. Educ. Res. 2019, 25, 1570–1581. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bogner, F.X.; Wiseman, M. Environmental Perspectives of Danish and Bavarian Pupils: Towards a Methodological Framework. Scand. J. Educ. Res. 1997, 41, 53–71. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Leeming, F.C.; Dwyer, W.O.; Porter, B.E.; Cobern, M.K. Outcome Research in Environmental Education: A Critical Review. J. Environ. Educ. 1993, 24, 8–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pauw, J.B.; Van Petegem, P. The Effect of Flemish Eco-Schools on Student Environmental Knowledge, Attitudes, and Affect. Int. J. Sci. Educ. 2010, 33, 1513–1538. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Braun, T.; Cottrell, R.; Dierkes, P. Fostering changes in attitude, knowledge and behavior: Demographic variation in environmental education effects. Environ. Educ. Res. 2017, 24, 899–920. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Regmi, S.; Johnson, B.; Dahal, B.M. Analysing the Environmental Values and Attitudes of Rural Nepalese Children by Validating the 2-MEV Model. Sustainability 2019, 12, 164. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
- Bogner, F.X.; Wiseman, M. Adolescents’ attitudes towards nature and environment: Quantifying the 2-MEV model. Environmentalist 2006, 26, 247–254. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Johnson, B.; Manoli, C.C. Using Bogner and Wiseman’s Model of Ecological Values to measure the impact of an earth education programme on children’s environmental perceptions. Environ. Educ. Res. 2008, 14, 115–127. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schneller, A.; Johnson, B.; Bogner, F. Measuring children’s environmental attitudes and values in northwest Mexico: Validating a modified version of measures to test the Model of Ecological Values (2-MEV). Environ. Educ. Res. 2015, 21, 61–75. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bogner, F.; Johnson, B.; Buxner, S.; Félix, L. The 2-MEV model: Constancy of adolescent environmental values within an 8-year time frame. Int. J. Sci. Educ. 2015, 37, 1938–1952. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Weigel, R.; Weigel, J. Environmental Concern. Environ. Behav. 1978, 10, 3–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Maloney, M.P.; Ward, M.P. Ecology: Let’s hear from the people: An objective scale for the measurement of ecological attitudes and knowledge. Am. Psychol. 1973, 28, 583–586. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dunlap, R.E.; Van Liere, K.D. The “New Environmental Paradigm”. J. Environ. Educ. 1978, 9, 10–19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dunlap, R.E.; Van Liere, K.D.; Mertig, A.G.; Jones, R.E. New Trends in Measuring Environmental Attitudes: Measuring Endorsement of the New Ecological Paradigm: A Revised NEP Scale. J. Soc. Issues 2000, 56, 425–442. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rokeach, M. A Theory of Organization and Change within Value-Attitude Systems. J. Soc. Issues 1968, 24, 13–33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dunlap, R.E. The New Environmental Paradigm Scale: From Marginality to Worldwide Use. J. Environ. Educ. 2008, 40, 3–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Manoli, C.C.; Johnson, B.; Dunlap, R.E. Assessing Children’s Environmental Worldviews: Modifying and Validating the New Ecological Paradigm Scale for Use with Children. J. Environ. Educ. 2007, 38, 3–13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Manoli, C.C.; Johnson, B.; Buxner, S.; Bogner, F. Measuring Environmental Perceptions Grounded on Different Theoretical Models: The 2-Major Environmental Values (2-MEV) Model in Comparison with the New Ecological Paradigm (NEP) Scale. Sustainability 2019, 11, 1286. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
- Frick, J.; Kaiser, F.G.; Wilson, M. Environmental knowledge and conservation behavior: Exploring prevalence and structure in a representative sample. Pers. Individ. Differ. 2004, 37, 1597–1613. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rickinson, M. Learners and Learning in Environmental Education: A critical review of the evidence. Environ. Educ. Res. 2001, 7, 207–320. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Arcury, T. Environmental Attitude and Environmental Knowledge. Hum. Organ. 1990, 49, 300–304. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cheng, J.C.-H.; Monroe, M.C. Connection to Nature. Environ. Behav. 2012, 44, 31–49. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
- Bradley, J.C.; Waliczek, T.M.; Zajicek, J.M. Relationship between Environmental Knowledge and Environmental Attitude of High School Students. J. Environ. Educ. 1999, 30, 17–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Oerke, B.; Bogner, F.X. Social Desirability, Environmental Attitudes, and General Ecological Behaviour in Children. Int. J. Sci. Educ. 2013, 35, 713–730. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
- Roczen, N.; Kaiser, F.G.; Bogner, F.X.; Wilson, M. A Competence Model for Environmental Education. Environ. Behav. 2014, 46, 972–992. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
- Duerden, M.D.; Witt, P.A. The impact of direct and indirect experiences on the development of environmental knowledge, attitudes, and behavior. J. Environ. Psychol. 2010, 30, 379–392. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bogner, F.X.; Wiseman, M. Association tests and outdoor ecology education. Eur. J. Psychol. Educ. 1997, 12, 89–102. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ernst, J.; Theimer, S. Evaluating the effects of environmental education programming on connectedness to nature. Environ. Educ. Res. 2011, 17, 577–598. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ajzen, I. Understanding Attitudes and Predicting Social Behavior; Prentice Hall: Englewood Cliffs, NJ, USA, 1980. [Google Scholar]
- Zimbardo, P.G.; Gerrig, R.J. Psychology, 7th ed.; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2003. [Google Scholar]
- Millar, M.G.; Millar, K.U. The Effects of Direct and Indirect Experience on Affective and Cognitive Responses and the Attitude–Behavior Relation. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 1996, 32, 561–579. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gibson, H.L.; Chase, C. Longitudinal impact of an inquiry-based science program on middle school students’ attitudes toward science. Sci. Educ. 2002, 86, 693–705. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liefländer, A.K.; Bogner, F.X. Educational impact on the relationship of environmental knowledge and attitudes. Environ. Educ. Res. 2016, 24, 611–624. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bennett, J.; Hogarth, S. Would you want to talk to a scientist at a party? High school students’ attitudes to school science and to science. Int. J. Sci. Educ. 2009, 31, 1975–1998. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
- Savelsbergh, E.R.; Prins, G.T.; Rietbergen, C.; Fechner, S.; Vaessen, B.E.; Draijer, J.M.; Bakker, A. Effects of innovative science and mathematics teaching on student attitudes and achievement: A meta-analytic study. Educ. Res. Rev. 2016, 19, 158–172. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
- Van Matre, S.; Johnson, B. Earthkeepers: Four Keys for Helping Young People Live in Harmony with the Earth; Institute of Earth Education: Greenville, SC, USA, 1988. [Google Scholar]
- Johnson, B.; Manoli, C.C. The 2-MEV Scale in the United States: A Measure of Children’s Environmental Attitudes Based on the Theory of Ecological Attitude. J. Environ. Educ. 2010, 42, 84–97. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hawcroft, L.J.; Milfont, T.L. The use (and abuse) of the new environmental paradigm scale over the last 30 years: A meta-analysis. J. Environ. Psychol. 2010, 30, 143–158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Manoli, C.C.; Johnson, B.; Hadjichambis, A.C.; Hadjichambi, D.; Georgiou, Y.; Ioannou, H. Evaluating the impact of the Earthkeepers Earth education program on children’s ecological understandings, values and attitudes, and behaviour in Cyprus. Stud. Educ. Eval. 2014, 41, 29–37. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Evans, G.W.; Juen, B.; Corral-Verdugo, V.; Corraliza, J.A.; Kaiser, F.G. Children’s cross-cultural environmental attitudes and self-reported behaviors. Child. Youth Environ. 2007, 17, 128–143. [Google Scholar]
- Arbuckle, J.L. Amos User’s Guide: Version 3.6; SmallWaters Corp.: Chicago, IL, USA, 1997. [Google Scholar]
- Wheaton, B.; Muthen, B.; Alwin, D.F.; Summers, G.F. Assessing Reliability and Stability in Panel Models. Sociol. Methodol. 1977, 8, 84. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Byrne, B.M. Structural Equation Modeling with EQS and EQS/ Windows: Basic Concepts, Applications, and Programming; Sage: Thousand Oaks, CA, USA, 1994. [Google Scholar]
- Hooper, D.; Coughlan, J.; Mullen, M.R. Structural equation modelling: Guidelines for determining model fit. Electron. J. Bus. Res. Methods 2008, 6, 53–60. [Google Scholar]
- Kline, P. The New Psychometrics: Science, Psychology, and Measurement; Routledge: New York, NY, USA, 1998. [Google Scholar]
- Hair, J.F.; Black, W.C.; Babin, B.J.; Anderson, R.E.; Tatham, R.L. Multivariate Data Analysis, 6th ed.; Pearson-Prentice Hall: Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA, 2006. [Google Scholar]
- Stevens, J.P. Applied Multivariate Statistics for the Social Sciences, 4th ed.; Erlbaum: Hillsdale, NJ, USA, 2002. [Google Scholar]
- Deng, L.; Chan, W. Testing the Difference between Reliability Coefficients Alpha and Omega. Educ. Psychol. Meas. 2016, 77, 185–203. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Borchers, C.; Boesch, C.; Riedel, J.; Guilahoux, H.; Quattara, D.; Randler, C. Environmental education in Cote d’loire/ West Africa: Extra-curricular Primary school teaching shows positive impact on environmental knowledge and attitudes. Int. J. Sci. Educ. 2014, 4, 240–259. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bortz, J.; Döring, N. Forschungsmethoden und Evaluation für Human-und Sozialwissenschaften [Research Methods and Evaluations for Human and Social Sciences], 4th ed.; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2006. [Google Scholar]
- Cincera, J.; Johnson, B. Earthkeepers in the Czech Republic: Experience from the implementation process of an earth education programme. Envigogika 2013, 8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
- Fremerey, C.; Bogner, F.X. Learning about Drinking Water: How Important are the Three Dimensions of Knowledge that Can Change Individual Behavior? Educ. Sci. 2014, 4, 213–228. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shieh, G. Suppression Situations in Multiple Linear Regression. Educ. Psychol. Meas. 2006, 66, 435–447. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kline, R.B. Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling, 4th ed.; Guilford Publications: New York, NY, USA, 2015. [Google Scholar]
- Kroufek, R.; Janovec, J.; Chytrý, V. Pre-service primary teachers and their attitudes towards nature. In The Teaching Profession: New Challenges—New Identities; Lit Verlag GmbH & Co. KG: Vienna, Austria, 2015. [Google Scholar]
- Kaiser, F.G.; Byrka, K.; Hartig, T. Reviving Campbell’s Paradigm for Attitude Research. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Rev. 2010, 14, 351–367. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kaiser, F.G.; Wilson, M. Assessing People’s General Ecological Behavior: A Cross-Cultural Measure. J. Appl. Soc. Psychol. 2000, 30, 952–978. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Milfont, T. The psychological meaning of preservation and utilization attitudes: A study using the natural semantic network technique. Psyecology 2010, 1, 123–136. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stokols, D. Instrumental and spiritual views of people-environment relations. Am. Psychol. 1990, 45, 641–646. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kahn, P.H. The Human Relationship with Nature: Development and Culture; The MIT Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 1999. [Google Scholar]
- Gardner, P.L. Measuring attitudes to science: Unidimensionality and internal consistency revisited. Res. Sci. Educ. 1995, 25, 283–289. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Linacre, J.M. Detecting multidimensionality: Which residual data-type works best? J. Outcome Meas. 1998, 2, 266–283. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Tanner, D.; Tanner, L.N. Curriculum Development: Theory into Practice; Macmillan: New York, NY, USA, 1980. [Google Scholar]
- Vesely, S.; Klöckner, C.A. Social Desirability in Environmental Psychology Research: Three Meta-Analyses. Front. Psychol. 2020, 11, 1395. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ajzen, I. The theory of planned behavior. Organ. Behav. Hum. Decis. Process. 1991, 50, 179–211. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dresner, M.; Gill, M. Environmental Education at Summer Nature Camp. J. Environ. Educ. 1994, 25, 35–41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dettmann-Easler, D.; Pease, J.L. Evaluating the Effectiveness of Residential Environmental Education Programs in Fostering Positive Attitudes toward Wildlife. J. Environ. Educ. 1999, 31, 33–39. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dienno, C.M.; Hilton, S.C. High School Students’ Knowledge, Attitudes, and Levels of Enjoyment of an Environmental Education Unit on Nonnative Plants. J. Environ. Educ. 2005, 37, 13–25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Davis, J.L.; Le, B.; Coy, A.E. Building a model of commitment to the natural environment to predict ecological behavior and willingness to sacrifice. J. Environ. Psychol. 2011, 31, 257–265. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Osborne, J.; Simon, S.; Collins, S. Attitudes towards science: A review of the literature and its implications. Int. J. Sci. Educ. 2003, 25, 1049–1079. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
Preservation | Utilization | Knowledge | n | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Y key | MS pre (SD) | 3.501 (0.955) | 2.678 (0.793) | 0.522 (0.176) | 1797 |
MS post (SD) | 3.586 (0.989) | 2.568 (0.767) | 0.634 (0.182) | ||
p | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||
Cohen’s d CI | 0.087 0.022–0.153 | 0.141 0.076–0.206 | 0.626 0.559–0.693 | ||
No Y key | MS pre (SD) | 3.667 (0.687) | 2.594 (0.604) | 0.531 (0.178) | 421 |
MS post (SD) | 3.726 (0.711) | 2.508 (0.636) | 0.617 (0.189) | ||
p | n.s. | 0.005 | <0.001 | ||
Cohen’s d CI | / / | 0.139 0.003–0.274 | 0.468 0.332–0.605 | ||
No dataon Y key | MS pre (SD) | 3.671 (0.780) | 2.669 (0.664) | 0.513 (0.181) | 1972 |
MS post (SD) | 3.754 (0.662) | 2.534 (0.565) | 0.594 (0.186) | ||
p | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||
Cohen’s d CI | 0.115 0.052–0.177 | 0.219 0.156–0.282 | 0.441 0.378–0.505 |
Number | 9 | 2 | 1 | 13 | 5 | 4 | 8 | 7 | 12 | 3 | 6 | 11 | 10 |
Difficulty | 0.81 | 0.71 | 0.65 | 0.62 | 0.59 | 0.51 | 0.44 | 0.42 | 0.32 | 0.26 | 0.25 | 0.22 | 0.09 |
Preservation | Utilization | Knowledge | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sample | 1 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 2 | |
Y key | MS pre (SD) | 3.643 (0.675) | 3.956 (0.605) | 2.467 (0.595) | 2.451 (0.612) | 0.500 (0.151) | 0.480 (0.150) |
MS post (SD) | 3.882 (0.600) | 4.035 (0.554) | 2.246 (0.515) | 2.366 (0.668) | 0.688 (0.164) | 0.595 (0.175) | |
p | <0.001 | 0.006 | <0.001 | 0.009 | <0.001 | <0.001 | |
Cohen’s d CI | 0.374 0.221–0.528 | 0.136 0.003–0.27 | 0.397 0.243–0.551 | 0.133 0.001–0.266 | 1.193 1.016–1.369 | 0.706 0.538–0.873 | |
n | 331 | 431 | 331 | 431 | 290 | 290 | |
No Y key | MS pre (SD) | 3.643 (0.759) | 3.921 (0.568) | 2.467 (0.582) | 2.499 (0.603) | 0.515 (0.141) | 0.464 (0.167) |
MS post (SD) | 3.882 (0.654) | 3.864 (0.612) | 2.246 (0.533) | 2.430 (0.643) | 0.616 (0.169) | 0.594 (0.214) | |
p | 0.015 | n.s. | 0.011 | n.s. | <0.001 | <0.001 | |
Cohen’s d CI | 0.337 0.001–0.673 | / / | 0.396 0.059–0.733 | / / | 0.649 0.285–1.013 | 0.677 0.282–1.073 | |
n | 69 | 89 | 69 | 89 | 61 | 52 | |
No data on Y key | MS pre (SD) | 3.557 (0.735) | 3.891 (0.572) | 2.585 (0.577) | 2.581 (0.643) | 0.429 (0.167) | 0.428 (0.145) |
MS post (SD) | 3.711 (0.603) | 3.867 (0.546) | 2.504 (0.523) | 2.511 (0.607) | 0.628 (0.186) | 0.525 (0.174) | |
p | 0.005 | n.s. | n.s. | n.s. | <0.001 | <0.001 | |
Cohen’s d CI | 0.229 0.019–0.439 | / / | / / | / / | 1.126 0.832–1.42 | 0.606 0.412–0.799 | |
n | 175 | 376 | 175 | 376 | 103 | 215 |
All | State Comparison | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AZ | PA | LA | ||||
n | 6585 | 1789 | 1702 | 3094 | ||
Preservation pre | → Preservation post | b p | 0.78 <0.001 | 0.52 <0.001 | 0.77 <0.001 | 0.79 <0.001 |
Preservation pre | → Knowledge pre | b p | 0.10 <0.001 | 0.13 0.001 | 0.18 <0.001 | 0.03 n.s. |
Preservation post | → Knowledge post | b p | 0.08 <0.001 | 0.09 0.032 | 0.05 n.s. | 0.06 0.025 |
Knowledge pre | → Knowledge post | b p | 0.62 <0.001 | 0.47 <0.001 | 0.97 <0.001 | 0.42 <0.001 |
Post knowledge | → Y key | b p | 0.04 n.s. | 0.16 <0.001 | 0.12 <0.001 | 0.05 n.s. |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Baierl, T.-M.; Johnson, B.; Bogner, F.X. Assessing Environmental Attitudes and Cognitive Achievement within 9 Years of Informal Earth Education. Sustainability 2021, 13, 3622. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13073622
Baierl T-M, Johnson B, Bogner FX. Assessing Environmental Attitudes and Cognitive Achievement within 9 Years of Informal Earth Education. Sustainability. 2021; 13(7):3622. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13073622
Chicago/Turabian StyleBaierl, Tessa-Marie, Bruce Johnson, and Franz X. Bogner. 2021. "Assessing Environmental Attitudes and Cognitive Achievement within 9 Years of Informal Earth Education" Sustainability 13, no. 7: 3622. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13073622