1. Introduction
One of the major energy consumers, especially for domestic cooking and heating, is the household sector. Common energy sources include electricity, liquefied petroleum gas, kerosene, fuelwood, and charcoal. Energy demands have increased significantly recently due to population and urbanization growth, and this has led to higher fuelwood and charcoal consumption [
1]. Reports state that about 3 billion people globally rely on fuelwood or charcoal for their daily cooking activities, and these are mostly residents of the developing nations [
2,
3]. Charcoal is the dark grey residue consisting of carbon produced through a slow process of heating wood in the absence of oxygen otherwise known as pyrolysis [
4]. It has been noted that it is more attractive than fuelwood owing to higher heating values and cheaper transport costs in terms of energy density. Global charcoal production is expected to steadily increase in the coming decades due to population growth, poverty, urbanization, and the relatively high prices of alternate energy sources for cooking [
5].
In Somalia, charcoal, referred to as dhuxul in Somali, has been and will remain the principal cooking energy used by millions of households for centuries, unless alternative energy is introduced [
6]. Charcoal is produced in Somalia primarily from slow-growing species of Acacia trees with a similar practice found in other East African countries, such as Ethiopia, Kenya, and Tanzania. In a study to rapidly map and estimate the impact of illegal charcoal production in southern Somalia using 2011 and 2013 satellite imagery, Bolognesi et al. [
7] reported an average production of 24,000 tons of charcoal and 2.7% tree loss within the two-year interval. A recent report corroborated this by noting that between 100,000 and 250,000 tons of charcoal are produced in Somalia where up to 4.4 million mature trees are felled, resulting in land clearance of about 73,000 ha [
8].
Nevertheless, the charcoal business known as black gold in Somalia, with a huge monthly export into neighboring countries [
9], has continued to thrive. For instance, it was estimated that the charcoal business from the Kismayo port of Somalia was in the tune of 25 million US dollars every year [
10]. Dependency on charcoal is not only destroying the environment but also negatively impacting the health of women, who are its main users [
6]. They are exposed to black dust, smoke and soot inhalation, which affects their respiratory system and eyesight. The women living in the study area are mostly unaware of the health effects of this traditional fuel dependency.
It has been reported that increasing demand for charcoal and its unsustainable value chain are expected to cause increased Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, with consequent impacts on climate change [
5]. The woodlands are most likely to be affected, thereby putting the future wood-energy supply at stake. Without realistic, renewable alternatives to charcoal in many countries in the coming years, it is essential to green the charcoal value chain. When produced from sustainable resources and improved technologies, the use of charcoal has the potential to reduce GHG emissions and help mitigate climate change, while simultaneously contributing to energy access and income generation, especially among the very poor.
Goal 12 of the Sustainable Development Goals (responsible consumption and production) is to ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns. One of the key targets is to achieve the sustainable management and efficient use of natural resources by 2030 [
11]. This requires an urgent reduction of our ecological footprint by changing the way goods and resources are produced and consumed. Charcoal consumption can be sustainable when the constituents of sustainable consumption as summarized by Ahamad and Ariffin. [
12] are considered. These include improving quality of life, assuring environmental protection, resource efficiency, and meeting the needs of future generations.
In Somalia, just as in many developing countries, women and young girls are mainly the ones who engage in cooking activity in their various households. This is not without its attendant health challenges as opined by [
6]. As a result, their knowledge about charcoal use and its associated health problems, the availability and ability of utilizing alternative fuels in the market cannot be taken for granted. In an attempt to encourage sustainable consumption of charcoal, establishing the responsiveness of the common people on the health effects and environmental impact of the usage of charcoal is a vital factor. This is where a knowledge, attitude and practice (KAP) survey becomes necessary. According to Vandamme [
13], the KAP survey investigates human behavior related to a certain topic, and simultaneously identifies what people know (knowledge), how they feel (attitude), and what they do (practice). Such a survey proposes that knowledge forms attitude, and both knowledge and attitude are the building blocks for practice [
14].
Given that there is a dearth of KAP studies on charcoal consumption in Somalia, this study sought to evaluate the charcoal consumption trends among households in the Sanaag Province of North-Eastern Somalia. Specifically, the objectives were to assess the households’ level of knowledge, attitude, and charcoal consumption practices, and to determine the association between knowledge and attitude with practice. It is hypothesized that charcoal consumption as practiced by householders in North-Eastern Somalia is affected by their knowledge and attitude. The study is envisaged to inform relevant stakeholders on the potential intervention required for the sustainable charcoal consumption to reduce the associated effects.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
Badhan town is located in the Sanaag Province in North-Eastern Somalia and the study was conducted in five wards in Badhan (
Figure 1). The region has a total population of 544,123 according to the population estimation survey in 2014 [
15]. Climatically, this area is semi-arid of rainfall ranging between 100 and 200 mm per year. The annual temperature is between 24 °C and 28 °C, and may vary from time to time in accordance with the four transition seasons in Somalia. The study data were collected in the summer when the weather was very windy and hot. During the study, it was observed that gigantic soils were eroded and advanced gully erosion occurred in the area and its surroundings. This location was chosen because there was a baseline study carried out in this area on the effect of tree density layers in the community. The study revealed that after five years of observation from 2001 to 2006, the deforestation increased to an average of 2.8% annual tree loss with the total absence of regrowth during the five-year study period. The study confirmed that there was a tremendous ecological impact of tree cutting for charcoal on tiger bush vegetation [
16].
2.2. Sampling Procedures
In order to define a proper sampling scheme, the study employed a multistage sampling technique. It was performed on all the five districts under the province. Purposive sampling was used in choosing one district among them. This technique is essential to find the people who have similar background knowledge and experience, and also to incorporate the population density and the geographic location as described by [
17]. The total population strength of 4000 households living in various wards in Badhan was verified from an organization that operates in the study area named African Development Solution (ADESO). The sample size of 351 was estimated based on Krejcie and Morgan’s table [
18]. During the data collection process, a systematic sampling was performed with a five-interval scale in each of the five wards of Badhan town.
2.3. Data Collection Techniques
The instrument in this study was a structured questionnaire for a face-to-face interview. The content of the questionnaire was validated by experts with experience in or relevant to sustainable consumption. There were 20 respondents interviewed in the pre-test to assess the clarity of the items in the survey questions before finalizing the questionnaire. Subsequently, 34 respondents were interviewed in the pilot study, which was 10% of the sample size, to check the reliability of the results. The pilot study results were analyzed by using Cronbach’s alpha coefficient, in which the scores of knowledge statements were 0.642, the attitude scale was 0.823, and the practice statements were 0.596. Therefore, the content of the statement and the wordings were modified for better understanding, and to encourage the participation of the respondents. Since the study was conducted in Somalia, the questionnaire was translated into the local language. The actual survey interviewed 343 households in five wards in the Badhan district of North-Eastern Somalia. This area is where the majority of the charcoal consumption is linked with a wide range of environmental problems, mainly deforestation. The data were collected in the morning and the afternoon after the workload had slowed down. The respondents were informed about the purpose of the study and proper instructions were given before the interview and it was strictly a voluntary contribution from the populace. Each respondent was given 15–20 min to complete the interview and if they had difficulty to read and answer, the researcher facilitated them with necessary assistance.
2.4. Questionnaire Design
The questionnaire was designed in four parts, which contained a total of 42 questions. The parts include demographic profile (12 questions), knowledge on charcoal consumption (10 statements), attitude towards charcoal consumption (12 statements), and charcoal consumption practices (8 questions). The level of knowledge, attitude and practice were determined by assigning individual scores to items in each respective section. At the same time, scores were reversed for statements that were negatively composed. The items in the knowledge on charcoal consumption section were designed as true/false statements. The correct answer for each question was awarded 1 point, whereas wrong answers were marked as 0. The scores in this section of the questionnaire ranged from 0 to 10. For the section on attitudes towards charcoal consumption, statements were designed using a five-point rated Likert scale (5 = strongly agree, 4 = agree, 3 = not sure, 2 = disagree, and 1 = strongly disagree). Being a 12-statement section, the scores ranged from 0 to a maximum of 60. In the charcoal consumption practice section, the questions were on a yes or no basis. The correct answer for each question was awarded 1 point, whereas wrong answers were marked as 0. Items were then given individual scores from 0 to 1 implying that for 8 questions, the minimum score is 0 and a maximum score is 8. In each section, the total individual scores were classified into three levels as mostly employed in such studies [
12,
19] and were based on defined percentages as follows: Poor (≤50%), Fair (51% to 80%), and Good (≥80–100%).
2.5. Data Analysis and Interpretation
Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS), version 20, was used to analyze the data generated from the questionnaire. Frequencies, percentages, and means were calculated for socio-demographic characteristics, levels of charcoal consumption knowledge, attitude, and practice. The association between knowledge, attitude and practice was tested using Pearson’s Chi-square test for independence. Simple linear regression was used to measure the relationship between household practice as the dependent variable and their knowledge and attitude towards charcoal consumption as the independent variables. Statistical significance was tested at 95% significance level (p ≤ 0.05).
2.6. Ethical Statement
Prior to the beginning of the survey activities, ethical clearance was sought for and granted by the local authorities in Sanaag Province. The respondents individually gave their consent before the interviews and discussion took place. Additionally, the objectives, procedures, benefits and discomforts of the study were explained and they were assured of confidentiality. Their voluntary participation was recorded through a thumb print or signature before the interviews were conducted.