Influence of Treated Wastewater Irrigation on Soil Nutritional-Chemical Attributes Using Soil Quality Index
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Site Description and Field Work
2.2. Laboratory Analysis
2.3. Soil Quality Index (SQI)
2.4. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Wastewater Characteristics
3.2. Impact of TWW Irrigation on Soil Fertility Indicators
3.3. Effects of TWW Irrigation on Trace Metals Concentrations
3.4. Influence of TWW Irrigation on Soil Quality Indices (SQI)
3.4.1. TDS Method
3.4.2. MDS Method
3.5. Relationship between SQI and Corn Yield
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Soil Variable | Protocol | Reference |
---|---|---|
pH | Saturated paste | Sparks et al. [25] |
OM | Potassium dichromate oxidation | Sparks et al. [25] |
CEC | sodium acetate extraction | Sparks et al. [25] |
CCE | Acid neutralization | Nelson [26] |
Total N | Kjeldahl approach | Bremner and Mulvaney [27] |
Available P | Sodium bicarbonate | Olsen and Sommers [28] |
Exchangeable Ca | Ammonium acetate extraction | Thomas [29] |
Exchangeable Mg | Ammonium acetate extraction | Thomas [29] |
Exchangeable K | Ammonium acetate extraction | Thomas [29] |
Total Fe | Concentrated nitric acid | Soon and Abboud [30] |
Total Mn | Concentrated nitric acid | Soon and Abboud [30] |
Total Zn | Concentrated nitric acid | Soon and Abboud [30] |
Total Cu | Concentrated nitric acid | Soon and Abboud [30] |
Bioavailable Fe | Diethylene-triamine pentaacetic acid (DTPA) extraction | Lindsay and Novell’s [31] |
Bioavailable Mn | Diethylene-triamine pentaacetic acid (DTPA) extraction | Lindsay and Novell’s [31] |
Bioavailable Zn | Diethylene-triamine pentaacetic acid (DTPA) extraction | Lindsay and Novell’s [31] |
Bioavailable Cu | Diethylene-triamine pentaacetic acid (DTPA) extraction | Lindsay and Novell’s [31] |
Characterize | TWW | WW | WHO [42,43,44], FAO [44], Acceptable Level | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Range | Mean | Range | Mean | ||
pH | 7.00–7.57 | 7.24 a | 7.6–7.8 | 7.7 a | 7.6 |
EC (dS m−1) | 1.32–1.60 | 1.33 a | 0.2–0.3 | 0.24 b | 0.7 |
TSS (mg L−1) | 24–52 | 39.2 a | 0.68–2.1 | 1.1 b | 20 |
Nitrate (mg L−1) | 15.2–23.5 | 18.1 a | 6.0–11.5 | 7.2 b | 10 |
NH4+ (mg L−1) | 15–8–25.1 | 19.2 a | 0.02–0.05 | 0.03 b | 5 |
Phosphorus (mg L−1) | 4.9–7.1 | 5.2 a | 0.00–0.02 | 0.01 b | 1–3 |
Ca+2 (mg L−1) | 89.4–168.0 | 141.8 a | 45.0–75.0 | 64.0 b | 75 |
Mg+2 (mg L−1) | 31.2–75.6 | 49.32 a | 15.0–35.0 | 25.0 b | 50 |
Na+ (mg L−1) | 89.7–165.6 | 156.4 a | 22.0–43.0 | 36.0 b | 200 |
K+ (mg L−1) | 21.8–37.4 | 28.5 a | 3.5–7.2 | 5.3 b | - |
Cl− (mg L−1) | 468–904 | 511 a | 151–211 | 174 b | - |
HCO3− (mg L−1) | 284–412 | 320 a | 77–121 | 104.5 b | - |
SO4−2 (mg L−1) | 12–28 | 18.5 a | 3.9–6.9 | 5.8 b | - |
Fe (mg L−1) | 5.1–7.1 | 5.6 a | 3.1–4.1 | 3.8 b | 5 |
Mn (mg L−1) | 0.81–1.2 | 1.04 a | 0.21–0.38 | 0.35 b | 1 |
Zn (mg L−1) | 0.77–0.96 | 0.87 a | 0.01–0.02 | 0.02 b | 2 |
Cu (mg L−1) | 0.52–0.73 | 0.59 a | 0.010–0.014 | 0.01 b | 0.2 |
Characteristic | TWW-Irrigated Soil | WW-Irrigated Soil |
---|---|---|
Site 1 | ||
pH | 7.93 a | 7.5 a |
OM (%) | 2.62 a | 2.2 b |
CEC (cmolc kg−1) | 24.30 a | 17.7 b |
CCE (g kg−1) | 42.2 a | 40.7 a |
Total N (%) | 0.14 a | 0.09 b |
C/N | 11.7 a | 14.18 b |
Available P (mg kg_1) | 20.63 a | 15.2 b |
Exchangeable Ca (cmolc kg−1) | 15.25 a | 12.42 b |
Exchangeable Mg (cmolc kg−1) | 4.85 a | 3.55 b |
Exchangeable K (cmolc kg−1) | 1.52 a | 1.05 b |
Site 2 | ||
pH | 7.8 a | 7.5 a |
OM (%) | 2.83 a | 2.2 a |
CEC (cmolc kg−1) | 25.45 a | 17.7 b |
CCE (g kg−1) | 40.9 a | 40.7 a |
Total N (%) | 0.17 a | 0.09 b |
C/N | 8.94 a | 14.18 b |
Available P (mg kg_1) | 23.52 a | 15.2 b |
Exchangeable Ca (cmolc kg−1) | 15.26 a | 12.42 b |
Exchangeable Mg (cmolc kg−1) | 7.45 a | 3.55 b |
Exchangeable K (cmolc kg−1) | 2.75 a | 1.05 b |
Site 3 | ||
pH | 7.84 a | 7.5 a |
OM (%) | 2.77 a | 2.2 b |
CEC (cmolc kg−1) | 23.82 a | 17.7 b |
CCE (g kg−1) | 42.8 a | 407 a |
Total N (%) | 0.11 a | 0.09 b |
C/N | 14.6 a | 14.18 a |
Available P (mg kg_1) | 22.30 a | 15.2 b |
Exchangeable Ca (cmolc kg−1) | 18.65 a | 12.42 b |
Exchangeable Mg (cmolc kg−1) | 5.93 a | 3.55 b |
Exchangeable K (cmolc kg−1) | 1.65 a | 1.05 b |
Site 4 | ||
pH | 7.88 a | 7.5 a |
OM (%) | 2.60 a | 2.2 a |
CEC (cmolc kg−1) | 23.65 a | 17.7 b |
CCE (g kg−1) | 43.1 a | 40.7 a |
Total N (%) | 0.12 a | 0.09 b |
C/N | 12.5 a | 14.18 b |
Available P (mg kg_1) | 22.73 a | 15.2 b |
Exchangeable Ca (cmolc kg−1) | 16.85 a | 12.42 b |
Exchangeable Mg (cmolc kg−1) | 4.95 a | 3.55 a |
Exchangeable K (cmolc kg−1) | 2.2 a | 1.05 b |
Site 5 | ||
pH | 7.9 a | 7.5 a |
OM (%) | 2.67 a | 2.2 b |
CEC (cmolc kg−1) | 23.7 a | 17.7 b |
CCE (g kg−1) | 42.8 a | 40.7 a |
Total N (%) | 0.13 a | 0.09 b |
C/N | 11.91 a | 14.18 b |
Available P (mg kg_1) | 18.90 a | 15.2 b |
Exchangeable Ca (cmolc kg−1) | 14.15 a | 12.42 a |
Exchangeable Mg (cmolc kg−1) | 4.15 a | 3.55 a |
Exchangeable K (cmolc kg−1) | 2.02 a | 1.05 b |
Characteristic | TWW-Irrigated Soil | WW-Irrigated Soil |
---|---|---|
Site 1 | ||
DTPA-Fe (mg kg−1) | 8.5 a | 7.1 a |
DTPA-Mn (mg kg−1) | 6.5 a | 5.2 b |
DTPA-Zn (mg kg−1) | 1.89 a | 1.4 b |
DTPA-Cu (mg kg−1) | 2.49 a | 1.84 b |
Total-Fe (g kg−1) | 23.6 a | 21.0 a |
Total-Mn (mg kg−1) | 512 a | 373 b |
Total-Zn (mg kg−1) | 41.7 a | 20.3 b |
Total-Cu (mg kg−1) | 56.3 a | 39.9 b |
Site 2 | ||
DTPT-Fe (mg kg−1) | 8.7 a | 7.1 b |
DTPA-Mn (mg kg−1) | 6.8 a | 5.2 b |
DTPA-Zn (mg kg−1) | 2.42 a | 1.4 b |
DTPA-Cu (mg kg−1) | 3.14 a | 1.84 b |
Total-Fe (g kg−1) | 23.8 a | 21.0 a |
Total-Mn (mg kg−1) | 522 a | 373 b |
Total-Zn (mg kg−1) | 51.95 a | 20.3 b |
Total-Cu (mg kg−1) | 55.4 a | 39.9 b |
Site 3 | ||
DTPT-Fe (mg kg−1) | 8.1 a | 7.1 b |
DTPA-Mn (mg kg−1) | 6.6 a | 5.2 b |
DTPA-Zn (mg kg−1) | 2.35 a | 1.4 b |
DTPA-Cu (mg kg−1) | 2.78 a | 1.84 b |
Total-Fe (g kg−1) | 22.30 a | 21.0 a |
Total-Mn (mg kg−1) | 510 a | 373 b |
Total-Zn (mg kg−1) | 42.8 a | 20.3 b |
Total-Cu (mg kg−1) | 55.03 a | 39.9 b |
Site 4 | ||
DTPT-Fe (mg kg−1) | 8.8 a | 7.1 b |
DTPA-Mn (mg kg−1) | 6.7 a | 5.2 b |
DTPA-Zn (mg kg−1) | 2.5 a | 1.4 b |
DTPA-Cu (mg kg−1) | 3.47 a | 1.84 b |
Total-Fe (g kg-1) | 23.7 a | 21.0 a |
Total-Mn (mg kg−1) | 517 a | 373 b |
Total-Zn (mg kg−1) | 44.7 a | 20.3 b |
Total-Cu (mg kg−1) | 57.2 a | 39.9 b |
Site 5 | ||
DTPT-Fe (mg kg−1) | 8.3 a | 7.1 a |
DTPA-Mn (mg kg−1) | 6.5 a | 5.2 b |
DTPA-Zn (mg kg−1) | 2.49 a | 1.4 b |
DTPA-Cu (mg kg−1) | 3.48 a | 1.84 b |
Total-Fe (g kg−1) | 23.6 a | 21.0 a |
Total-Mn (mg kg−1) | 513 a | 373 b |
Total-Zn (mg kg−1) | 41.1 a | 20.3 b |
Total-Cu (mg kg−1) | 60.1 a | 39.9 b |
Soil Attribute | TDS Methods | MDS Methods | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Communality | Weight | Communality | Weight | |
pH | 0.691 | 0.049 | ||
OM (%) | 0.952 | 0.067 | 0.891 | 0.165 |
CEC (cmol kg−1) | 0.869 | 0.061 | ||
Total N (%) | 0.919 | 0.065 | 0.922 | 0.172 |
C/N | 0.742 | 0.052 | ||
Available P (mg kg−1) | 0.985 | 0.069 | 0.988 | 0.184 |
Exchangeable Ca (cmolc kg−1) | 0.805 | 0.056 | ||
Exchangeable Mg (cmolc kg−1) | 0.788 | 0.055 | ||
Exchangeable K (cmolc kg−1) | 0.929 | 0.066 | 0.948 | 0.177 |
DTPT-Fe (mg kg−1) | 0.844 | 0.062 | 0.771 | 0.144 |
DTPA-Mn (mg kg−1) | 0.698 | 0.049 | ||
DTPA-Zn (mg kg−1) | 0.878 | 0.062 | ||
DTPA-Cu (mg kg−1) | 0.810 | 0.057 | ||
Total-Fe (g kg−1) | 0.812 | 0.057 | ||
Total-Mn (mg kg−1) | 0.644 | 0.045 | ||
Total-Zn (mg kg−1) | 0.919 | 0.063 | 0.876 | 0.163 |
Total-Cu (mg kg−1) | 0.898 | 0.063 |
SQI Scenario | Soil Quality Grade | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
I (Very High) | II (High) | III (Moderate) | IV (Low) | V (Very Low) | |
IQI-TDS | >0.80 | 0.73–0.80 | 0.66–0.73 | 0.59–0.66 | <0.59 |
NQI-TDS | >0.62 | 0.57–0.62 | 0.52–0.57 | 0.47–0.52 | <0.47 |
IQI-MDS | >0.82 | 0.76–0.82 | 0.68–0.76 | 0.60–0.68 | <0.60 |
NQI-MDS | >0.58 | 0.49–0.58 | 0.43–0.49 | 0.37–0.43 | <0.37 |
PCs | PC1 | PC2 |
---|---|---|
Eigenvalue | 6.35 | 5.96 |
Variance (%) | 46.59 | 37.24 |
Cumulative variance (%) Eigenvectors | 46.59 | 83.83 |
pH | 0.60 | 0.55 |
OM | 0.85 | 0.09 |
CEC | 0.76 | 0.53 |
Total N | 0.21 | 0.83 |
C/N | 0.63 | 0.23 |
Available P | 0.87 | 0.41 |
Exchangeable Ca | 0.34 | 0.79 |
Exchangeable Mg | 0.28 | 0.80 |
Exchangeable K | 0.44 | 0.85 |
DTPT-Fe | 0.78 | 0.49 |
DTPA-Mn | 0.56 | 0.57 |
DTPA-Zn | 0.70 | 0.63 |
DTPA-Cu | 0.67 | 0.59 |
Total-Fe | 0.61 | 0.60 |
Total-Mn | 0.59 | 0.52 |
Total-Zn | 0.76 | 0.67 |
Total-Cu | 0.64 | 0.57 |
pH | CEC | OM | TN | A-P | E-Ca | E-Mg | E-K | T-Fe | T-Mn | T-Zn | T-Cu | D-Mn D-Zn D-Fe | A-Cu | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
pH | 1.00 | |||||||||||||
CEC | 0.21 | 1.00 | ||||||||||||
OM | 0.31 | 042 | 1.00 | |||||||||||
TN | 0.17 | 0.37 | 0.45 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
A-P | 0.25 | 0.19 | 0.33 | 0.27 | 1.00 | |||||||||
E-Ca | −0.12 | 0.28 | 0.11 | −0.11 | −0.1 | 1.00 | ||||||||
E-Mg | −0.14 | 0.22 | 0.13 | −0.14 | −0.13 | 0.69 ** | 1.00 | |||||||
E-K | 0.11 | 0.19 | 0.17 | −0.2 | 0.15 | 0.77 ** | 0.75 ** | 1.00 | ||||||
T-Fe | −0.18 | 0.07 | 0.38 | 0.04 | −0.02 | −0.08 | −0.05 | 0.09 | 1.00 | |||||
T-Mn | −0.15 | 0.04 | 0.33 | 0.07 | −0.02 | −0.1 | −0.11 | 0.01 | 0.43 | 1.00 | ||||
T-Zn | −0.13 | 0.02 | 0.36 | 0.1 | −0.04 | −0.14 | 0.13 | −0.07 | 0.58 * | 0.39 | 1.00 | |||
T-Cu | −0.1 | −0.08 | 0.44 | 0.22 | 0.12 | −0.06 | −0.08 | 0.11 | 0.38 | 0.31 | 0.42 | 1.00 | ||
D-Fe | −0.14 | 0.04 | 0.41 | 0.24 | −0.11 | −0.11 | −0.13 | −0.1 | 0.54 * | 0.31 | 0.29 | 0.22 | 1.00 | |
D-Mn | −0.15 | 0.06 | 0.39 | 0.2 | −0.12 | −0.09 | 0.04 | 0.06 | 0.35 | 0.51 * | 0.23 | 0.19 | 1.00 0.22 | |
D-Zn | −0.1 | 0.01 | 0.28 | 0.16 | −0.08 | −0.1 | −0.07 | −0.03 | 0.3 | 0.15 | 0.49 * | 0.21 | 1.00 0.2 0.31 | |
D-Cu | 0.07 | 0.09 | 0.52 * | 0.26 | 0.06 | −0.08 | −0.1 | 0.01 | 0.18 | 0.12 | 0.23 | 0.56 * | 0.21 0.11 0.14 | 1.00 |
IQI-TDS | IQI-MDS | NQI-TDS | NQI-MDS | |
---|---|---|---|---|
IQI-TDS | 1.00 | 0.94 ** | 0.68 * | 0.62 * |
IQI-MDS | 0.94 ** | 1.00 | 0.59 * | 0.64 * |
NQI-TDS | 0.68 * | 0.59 * | 1.00 | 0.71 * |
NQI-MDS | 0.62 * | 0.64 * | 0.71 * | 1.00 |
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Rezapour, S.; Nouri, A.; Jalil, H.M.; Hawkins, S.A.; Lukas, S.B. Influence of Treated Wastewater Irrigation on Soil Nutritional-Chemical Attributes Using Soil Quality Index. Sustainability 2021, 13, 1952. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13041952
Rezapour S, Nouri A, Jalil HM, Hawkins SA, Lukas SB. Influence of Treated Wastewater Irrigation on Soil Nutritional-Chemical Attributes Using Soil Quality Index. Sustainability. 2021; 13(4):1952. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13041952
Chicago/Turabian StyleRezapour, Salar, Amin Nouri, Hawzhin M. Jalil, Shawn A. Hawkins, and Scott B. Lukas. 2021. "Influence of Treated Wastewater Irrigation on Soil Nutritional-Chemical Attributes Using Soil Quality Index" Sustainability 13, no. 4: 1952. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13041952