Factors Affecting Pandemic Biosecurity Behaviors of International Travelers: Moderating Roles of Gender, Age, and Travel Frequency

Round 1

Reviewer 1 Report

1.In the abstract part of the article, the author studies the relationship between gender, age and travel frequency on tourists' values and attitudes, but what is the specific conclusion? The author did not explain the relationship between the above factors.

2.It is the key part of the research, but the author has not explained the logical relationship between the research hypotheses and given the theoretical basis of the research hypotheses.

3.The research contribution of this article is unclear, and the author has not given the theoretical contribution brought by the research conclusion.

Author Response

Summary of Revisions and Responses to Reviewers’ Comments

Title: Factors affecting pandemic biosecurity behaviors of international travelers: Moderating roles of gender, age, and travel frequency

Manuscript ID: sustainability-1412253.R1

Journal name: Sustainability

Reviewers' Comments to Author:

Reviewer 1:

Open Review

(x) I would not like to sign my review report

( ) I would like to sign my review report

English language and style

( ) Extensive editing of English language and style required

( ) Moderate English changes required

( ) English language and style are fine/minor spell check required

(x) I don't feel qualified to judge about the English language and style

Yes      Can be improved        Must be improved       Not applicable

Is the content succinctly described and contextualized with respect to previous and present theoretical background and empirical research (if applicable) on the topic?

( )        ( )        (x)       ( )

Are the research design, questions, hypotheses and methods clearly stated?

( )        (x)       ( )        ( )

Are the arguments and discussion of findings coherent, balanced and compelling?

( )        (x)       ( )        ( )

For empirical research, are the results clearly presented?

(x)       ( )        ( )        ( )

Is the article adequately referenced?

( )        (x)       ( )        ( )

Are the conclusions thoroughly supported by the results presented in the article or referenced in secondary literature?

( )        ( )        ( )        ( )

Your sincere feedback is greatly appreciated by the authors.

Comments and Suggestions for Authors

1. In the abstract part of the article, the author studies the relationship between gender, age and travel frequency on tourists' values and attitudes, but what is the specific conclusion? The author did not explain the relationship between the above factors.
2. RESPONSE: Thank you for raising these issues. In order to address your concerns, we have revised the introduction section and added the literature review section for theoretical framework as follows (please also refer to lines 38-115 in the blue text of the revised manuscript). In addition, regarding the specific conclusions, please see ‘3 RESPONSE’ below.
3. Introduction

Since the report of a novel coronavirus (COVID-19) in December, 2019, in Wuhan, People's Republic of China, and the subsequent imposition of non-pharmaceutical interventions (NPIs) and biosecurity measures to reduce contagion, international tourism passenger flows have been unprecedently affected, resulting in significant damage to the tourism industry [1-3]. Behavioral interventions to ensure that travelers follow appropriate biosecurity and health measures to protect populations from transmissible infectious agents have long been recognized as vital measures in ensuring that international travel does not act as a vector for the introduction of infectious diseases or alien fauna and flora between countries [4-8]. Developing more effective global surveillance tools and mechanisms (e.g., biosecurity behaviors) to better communicate and coordinate between countries can facilitate more rapid and effective responses to infectious disease outbreaks [9]. However, ensuring tourists to follow biosecurity measures also requires the development of effective health marketing and communication strategies that are grounded in an understanding of tourist behavior [10]. Such information is also going to be extremely important as international travel recommences and new campaigns are developed to encourage international tourists to follow appropriate destination health protocols, that include NPIs as well as vaccination requirements [11,12].

Tourism related biosecurity behaviors have been shown to be influenced by perceived values with respect to sustainability practices and attitudes toward sustainability [13]. Experience of previous pandemics show that tourist NPIs can have a significant impact on the behavioral intentions of consumers to travel internationally [14]. In seeking to segment the international travel market to intervene more effectively in modifying health related behaviors, age, and gender have been found to be significant in travel-related incidence of infectious diseases (e.g., Chlamydia trachomatis) [15] as well as biosecurity behaviors [16].

In terms of different traveler characteristics, gender, age, and travel frequency have been found to be positively related to the risk of greater exposure to infectious diseases [17-19] and different levels of risk perception [20-21]. During COVID-19, demographic characteristics (e.g., age, gender) played key roles in influencing immunity levels and predicting mortality while there are substantial gender-based differences for COVID-19 related psychosocial factors and adoption of preventive behaviors [22,23]. The frequency of travel and outdoor recreation participation also has significant effects on predicting traveling behvior [24,25]. Interestingly, international travel frequencies may also help predict biosecurity tourists’ values, attitudes, and behaviors during the COVID-19 pandemic [26].  

Despite the significance of biosecurity behaviors as a public and travel health measure, comprehensive studies of the factors affecting tourists’ biosecurity behaviors are limited [5]. In order to fill this gap, the purposes of this study are to build and test a theoretically conceptualized research model on COVID-19 biosecurity for international travelers from the United States (US), including values, attitudes, interventions, and behaviors, together with three moderators representing gender, age, and travel frequency. To achieve these research goals, seven hypotheses are proposed, raising and verifying two research questions. First, do international tourists’ values, attitudes, and interventions affect biosecurity behaviors during the COVID-19 pandemic? Second, do international travelers’ gender, age, and travel frequency moderate the four relationships between values, attitudes, interventions, and biosecurity behaviors during the pandemic? In order to verifying the research model, research questions, and hypotheses, we conducted a digital survey during the first year of COVID-19 with international travelers from the United States having substantial overseas travel experience. Accordingly, this study contributes to a better understanding of the variables which influence international travelers’ biosecurity behaviors, providing theoretical and practical implications to stakeholders and/or future research

2. Literature Review

2.1. Theoretical Framework

Biosecurity measures aim to prevent or slow the mobility of people and/or vectors in order to reduce the rate of contagion [5]. Tourism has therefore become a focal point of biosecurity interventions undertaken by government and others during pandemics [27,28]. For example, long-distance commercial aircraft, ships, trains, buses, and automobiles may all be controlled and monitored in coordination with public health authorities in order to limit the spread of COVID-19 [29]. Although the implementation of biosecurity restrictions led to a reduction in international tourism globally because of the pandemic, consideration of biosecurity measures are also an element of tourism industry recovery and rebuilding plans because of the role they can play in restoring customer confidence and risk perceptions [30]. For example, the use of NPI biosecurity measures has been shown to be related to psychological and financial resilience [31] as well as experience of COVID-19, wearing masks, and entering quarantine [32]. Studies have also found that the value-attitude-behavior model and the moderating role of tourist’s personalities are significant for COVID-19 biosecurity [33]. Researchers identified that tourist values, attitudes, personal norm, social norm, and tourist biosecurity behaviors are different depending on international travel frequency while frequency has also been found to influences US tourists’ biosecurity behaviors [26]. However, despite the potential importance of values, attitudes, interventions, behaviors, tourist characteristics (e.g., gender, age), and travel frequency on international travel following a pandemic, comprehensive integrated research on how these factors influence international travel consumers’ COVID-19 biosecurity behaviors is limited. Thus, this study aims to identify the relationships between the values, attitudes, interventions, and behaviors, along with the moderators of gender, age, and travel frequency in the context of COVID-19 biosecurity for international tourism. 

2. It is the key part of the research, but the author has not explained the logical relationship between the research hypotheses and given the theoretical basis of the research hypotheses.
3. RESPONSE: We appreciate your bringing the issue. In order to resolve your concern, we have added the hypothesis development section as follows (please also see lines 116-182 in the blue text of the revised manuscript):

2.2. Hypothesis Development

Attitudes towards COVID-19 health measures, including vaccination, can be derived from ascertaining people’s values which, in turn, are found to affect COVID-19 related decision-making behavior among United States adults [34]. In the context of sustainable tourism behaviors, consumers’ perceived values, have a great effect on their attitudes toward on sustainable consumption behavior [35]. United States travel consumers’ values, on biosecurity during the COVID-19 pandemic is also identified as highly influencing attitudes towards biosecurity [33]. Grounded upon the literature review above, this study proposes the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 1 (H₁). Values on COVID-19 biosecurity for travel positively influence attitudes toward COVID-19 biosecurity for travel.

Public attitudes regarding various NPIs influence their adoption during COVID-19 [36]. Strong attitudes have been found to be a good predictor of adoption of four personal NPIs (handwashing, proper coughing habits, social distancing, and mask wearing) [37]. Attitudes regarding COVID-19 and the government/health system appear likely to influence compliance with preventive measures such as self-reporting, physical distancing, the use of face masks, and the acceptability of vaccines [38]. Drawing on this literature, this study posits the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 2 (H₂). Attitudes toward COVID-19 biosecurity for travel positively influence COVID-19 interventions for travel.

Individual attitudes toward COVID-19 related public health measures are closely related to compliance behavior with respect to such public health rules [39]. From a tourism sustainability perspective, consumers’ attitudes have a significant impact on their behavior in relation to environmentally friendly consumption [35]. During the COVID-19 pandemic, international travel consumers’ attitudes positively lead to their biosecurity behavior on COVID-19 [33]. Based on the literature review above, this study suggests the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 3 (H₃). Attitudes toward COVID-19 biosecurity for travel positively influence COVID-19 biosecurity behaviors for travel.

In the context of the 2009 H1N1 influenza pandemic, international travel consumers’ NPIs were found to have a significant influence on their behavioral intention [14]. During the COVID-19 pandemic, travelers’ NPIs significantly affected behavioral intention [40]. Furthermore, destination requirements for international travel consumers to adopt NPIs has a strong effect on their biosecurity behavior for travel during the COVID-19 pandemic [31]. In line with this literature, this study proposes the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 4 (H₄). COVID-19 interventions for travel positively influence COVID-19 biosecurity behaviors for travel.

Gender and age groups often display different infectious disease profiles in high incidence destinations [15]. For instance, in a cross-national study across eight countries, women are were found to be more likely to perceive COVID-19 as a very serious health problem, to agree with restraining public policy measures, and to comply with them [39]. In terms of the COVID-19 pandemic, significant gender-based differences for both psychosocial factors and the adoption of preventive behaviors have been found [22]. Different age-related influences on individuals’ reactions to the pandemic and vacation preferences also provide practical insights for stakeholders interested in revising their segmentation and targeting strategies once the pandemic subsides [41]. In light of this literature, this study assumes the two following hypotheses:

Hypothesis 5 (H₅). Gender significantly moderates the relationships between values, attitudes, interventions, and behaviors in the context of COVID-19 biosecurity for tourism.

Hypothesis 6 (H₆). Age significantly moderates the relationships between values, attitudes, interventions, and behaviors in the context of COVID-19 biosecurity for tourism.

In terms of travel frequency, significant effects have been found of the frequency of travel on mobility-resource ownership decisions [25]. Travel frequency has a strong influence on the spread of infectious diseases (e.g., COVID-19) and there are close relationships between frequency and basic reproduction numbers and global dynamics [19]. As well as contributing to the spread of novel diseases, travel frequency also has a great impact on the persistence of infectious diseases, such as mosquito-borne diseases [18]. Interestingly, travel frequency may also be related to other travel behavior. For example, travel frequency can predict consumer behavior of leisurely walking, travel time, and/or activities in the context of outdoor recreation participation [24]. Importantly, there is a suggestion that biosecurity behaviors may be related to international travel frequency [26]. Therefore, this study proposes the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 7 (H₇). Travel frequency significantly moderates the relationships between values, attitudes, interventions, and behaviors in the context of COVID-19 biosecurity for tourism.

Figure 1 displays the hypothesized relationships among values, attitudes, interventions, and behaviors, along with the three moderators of gender, age, and travel frequency.

3. The research contribution of this article is unclear, and the author has not given the theoretical contribution brought by the research conclusion.
4. RESPONSE: Thank you very much for your insightful comments. In order to address your concerns, we have rewritten the entire section of discussion and conclusions, providing discussions, theoretical contributions, practical implications, and future research directions as follows (also see the blue text on lines 281-395 of the revised manuscript):
5. Discussion and Conclusions

5.1. Discussion

Results revealed that values with respect to the importance of biosecurity has the strongest impact on attitudes in terms of COVID-19 related biosecurity, implying that international tourists with high biosecurity values are more likely to have positive attitudes toward pandemic biosecurity behavior. This reinforces the basic, yet significant understanding, that the preexisting beliefs of overseas travelers towards prevention practices are very important with respect to perceptions of health safety measures, extending findings of prior studies on the impact of values on attitudes [33-34]. Unexpectedly, interventions have a substantial mediating effect between attitudes and behaviors, showing that the nature of the NPIs is critical for tourist behavior. Attitudes toward pandemic biosecurity for travel greatly influences pandemic interventions for travel, revealing that people who travel internationally have positive attitudes on biosecurity and tend to accept pandemic-related interventions for travel, expanding previous findings on attitudes and NPIs [36-38]. In addition, attitudes substantially lead to pandemic biosecurity behaviors for tourism, broadening past research on attitudes and behaviors during a pandemic [33,39]. Importantly, pandemic interventions for tourism positively influence the biosecurity actions for tourism, enlarging the existing literature on the topic [14,19,40].

Regarding the gender moderator, the relationships between attitudes and behaviors as well as interventions and behaviors show the differences between males and females. Results infer that men with positive attitudes towards COVID-19 biosecurity for travel are more likely to practice appropriate biosecurity behaviors, while women with strong interventions of the COVID-19 pandemic for travel are more likely to follow biosecurity measures, which is partially consistent with existing literature [15,22,39]. With regard to the two age groups representing travelers below 40 years old and those 40 years old or over, it was found that older travel consumers tend to follow biosecurity rules more than younger travelers, although attitudes and behaviors remain important influences for younger travelers. These results are somewhat similar to previous research [22,41]. Significantly for the determination of targeted interventions in terms of travel frequency, more frequent international travelers are more likely to follow recommended biosecurity behaviors than infrequent travelers. These findings show some similarity to prior travel frequency studies [18-19,24-25,26].

5.2. Theoretical Implications

This work provides several theoretical contributions in terms of international travel behaviors and infectious disease control in responding to the COVID-19 pandemic. First, this study found that values, attitudes, and interventions are key factors which lead to travel consumers’ adoption of recommended biosecurity behaviors. The finding of this study provides new knowledge to researchers and public health educators. Second, this research sheds specific light on international travel related pandemic interventions, revealing the important mediating role of NPIs between attitudes and behaviors. These results therefore offer significant insights on the linkage of attitudes, interventions, and behaviors for future studies on tourism and COVID-19 as well as tourism and infectious disease in general. 

With respect to the moderating role of gender, men are more likely to have positive relationships between values and attitudes and attitudes and interventions. In contrast, women are more likely to have positive relationships between attitudes and behaviors and interventions and behavior. With respect to the moderating effect of age, older tourists tend to have stronger relationships between values and attitudes, attitudes and interventions, and interventions and behaviors, whereas younger tourists tend to have stronger relationship between attitudes and behaviors. These findings provide novel insights. Interestingly, with respect to the moderating role of tourism frequency, the research model supported that international tourists who travel more frequently have stronger relationships.     

5.3. Practical Implications

The findings of this work offer several practical implications for those responsible for international travelers following biosecurity measures. First, the high impact of values on attitudes in this study suggests that governments and tourism destinations should focus on promoting biosecurity values to potential overseas tourists in order to improve their attitudes toward pandemic biosecurity behaviors at destinations and when using transport. The mediating role of interventions between attitudes and behaviors also suggests that international and national health agencies and destination management organizations should emphasize the significance of NPIs to increase the willingness to adopt appropriate biosecurity behaviors when traveling while COVID-19 remains active. This could partly be done by online and mobile education campaigns as well as through social media networks and relevant print services to communicate to international tourists before and during travel to a destination [52]. The greater impact of interventions on behaviors than that of attitudes on behaviors suggests that policy makers and marketers should create strategies utilizing NPIs when they want overseas travelers to take biosecurity actions relevant to disease control.

The significant moderating effects of gender, age, and travel frequency provide clear insights for the better targeting and design of marketing and communication strategies when they wish to target international travel consumers to improve biosecurity behavior. For example, when targeting men, governments and health organizations can focus on the relationships between attitudes and behaviors as well as interventions and behaviors. It can be done by market segmentation strategies via different digital campaign contents for men or women separately. The different findings with respect to older and younger tourists suggest that marketing messages can developed and targeted by age. That is, when targeting older people, stakeholders could emphasize the values and interventions, while when targeting younger people, attitudes and behaviors would be highlighted. That could be implemented by advertising through different types of social media channels depending on age categories. The relationship between frequency of travel and biosecurity behaviors also provides clear opportunities for effective communication via frequent flier programs as well as the potential role for social norm-based travel behavioral interventions. Due to the strength of relationships from all hypotheses in the high frequency travel group compared to the low frequency travel group, frequency of travel clearly becomes a valuable tool for the development of marketing plans regarding tourism-related pandemic biosecurity actions.  

5.4. Limitations and Future Research Directions

Although this work contributes to both theory and practice, there are several limits to the study to consider for future research opportunities. Since this study was conducted on US international tourists during the COVID-19 pandemic, the results need to be treated cautiously with respect to other countries, cultures, and time periods. Because demographic factors have significant impacts on COVID-19 biosecurity practices, future research on income, education, and marital status, and/or place of residence are recommended. These findings might also provide interesting insights for improved segmentation measures in the development of behavioral interventions to restrict infectious disease risk and the receptiveness of biosecurity measures to voluntary adoption during international travel.

Older travel consumers (60 years and older) can have substantially different behaviors from those of other age categories regarding pandemic biosecurity for tourism. Consequently, future studies may need focus on multiple age segments of travelers to identify similarities and differences among those segments. Furthermore, future research should attempt to compare US-based international travelers with those international travel consumers residing in different geographical regions to compare differences and similarities. Finally, the development of COVID-19 vaccine passports for the resumption of tourism is underway [53], although NPIs will potentially still be required at some destinations and especially during periods of future outbreaks. Accordingly, new research addressing the implications of vaccination for international tourism, both as a single variable and in conjunction with NPIs would be valuable and timely.

We greatly appreciate your constructive comments on our paper.

Author Response File: Author Response.doc

Reviewer 2 Report

1. The literature review has not been critically analysed / reviewed. The literature review has not been well used to explain the study variables. The author should critically review the literature by highlighting what is missing in the literature and the weaknesses that need to be addressed (the research gap).
2. Explain the methodology clearly; the variables and measurements used
3. Discuss what the findings indicate; were they different than the findings in previous studies, What is new about this study.

4. The hypotheses have not been presented on the basis of literature review, The hypotheses on the basis of literature review must be well presented, All hypotheses must be well discussed.

5. Discuss limitations of the present study and future study scope and suggestions in conclusion 

Author Response

Reviewer 2:

Open Review

(x) I would not like to sign my review report

( ) I would like to sign my review report

English language and style

( ) Extensive editing of English language and style required

( ) Moderate English changes required

(x) English language and style are fine/minor spell check required

( ) I don't feel qualified to judge about the English language and style

Yes      Can be improved        Must be improved       Not applicable

Is the content succinctly described and contextualized with respect to previous and present theoretical background and empirical research (if applicable) on the topic?

( )        (x)       ( )        ( )

Are the research design, questions, hypotheses and methods clearly stated?

( )        (x)       ( )        ( )

Are the arguments and discussion of findings coherent, balanced and compelling?

( )        (x)       ( )        ( )

For empirical research, are the results clearly presented?

(x)       ( )        ( )        ( )

Is the article adequately referenced?

( )        (x)       ( )        ( )

Are the conclusions thoroughly supported by the results presented in the article or referenced in secondary literature?

( )        ( )        ( )        ( )

We appreciate your thoughtful comment on our paper.

Comments and Suggestions for Authors

1. The literature review has not been critically analysed / reviewed. The literature review has not been well used to explain the study variables. The author should critically review the literature by highlighting what is missing in the literature and the weaknesses that need to be addressed (the research gap).
2. RESPONSE: Thank you for raising the issues. In order to address your concerns, we have revised the introduction section and added the literature review section for theoretical framework as follows (please also refer to lines 38-115 in the blue text of the revised manuscript):
3. Introduction

Since the report of a novel coronavirus (COVID-19) in December, 2019, in Wuhan, People's Republic of China, and the subsequent imposition of non-pharmaceutical interventions (NPIs) and biosecurity measures to reduce contagion, international tourism passenger flows have been unprecedently affected, resulting in significant damage to the tourism industry [1-3]. Behavioral interventions to ensure that travelers follow appropriate biosecurity and health measures to protect populations from transmissible infectious agents have long been recognized as vital measures in ensuring that international travel does not act as a vector for the introduction of infectious diseases or alien fauna and flora between countries [4-8]. Developing more effective global surveillance tools and mechanisms (e.g., biosecurity behaviors) to better communicate and coordinate between countries can facilitate more rapid and effective responses to infectious disease outbreaks [9]. However, ensuring tourists to follow biosecurity measures also requires the development of effective health marketing and communication strategies that are grounded in an understanding of tourist behavior [10]. Such information is also going to be extremely important as international travel recommences and new campaigns are developed to encourage international tourists to follow appropriate destination health protocols, that include NPIs as well as vaccination requirements [11,12].

Tourism related biosecurity behaviors have been shown to be influenced by perceived values with respect to sustainability practices and attitudes toward sustainability [13]. Experience of previous pandemics show that tourist NPIs can have a significant impact on the behavioral intentions of consumers to travel internationally [14]. In seeking to segment the international travel market to intervene more effectively in modifying health related behaviors, age, and gender have been found to be significant in travel-related incidence of infectious diseases (e.g., Chlamydia trachomatis) [15] as well as biosecurity behaviors [16].

In terms of different traveler characteristics, gender, age, and travel frequency have been found to be positively related to the risk of greater exposure to infectious diseases [17-19] and different levels of risk perception [20-21]. During COVID-19, demographic characteristics (e.g., age, gender) played key roles in influencing immunity levels and predicting mortality while there are substantial gender-based differences for COVID-19 related psychosocial factors and adoption of preventive behaviors [22,23]. The frequency of travel and outdoor recreation participation also has significant effects on predicting traveling behvior [24,25]. Interestingly, international travel frequencies may also help predict biosecurity tourists’ values, attitudes, and behaviors during the COVID-19 pandemic [26].  

Despite the significance of biosecurity behaviors as a public and travel health measure, comprehensive studies of the factors affecting tourists’ biosecurity behaviors are limited [5]. In order to fill this gap, the purposes of this study are to build and test a theoretically conceptualized research model on COVID-19 biosecurity for international travelers from the United States (US), including values, attitudes, interventions, and behaviors, together with three moderators representing gender, age, and travel frequency. To achieve these research goals, seven hypotheses are proposed, raising and verifying two research questions. First, do international tourists’ values, attitudes, and interventions affect biosecurity behaviors during the COVID-19 pandemic? Second, do international travelers’ gender, age, and travel frequency moderate the four relationships between values, attitudes, interventions, and biosecurity behaviors during the pandemic? In order to verifying the research model, research questions, and hypotheses, we conducted a digital survey during the first year of COVID-19 with international travelers from the United States having substantial overseas travel experience. Accordingly, this study contributes to a better understanding of the variables which influence international travelers’ biosecurity behaviors, providing theoretical and practical implications to stakeholders and/or future research

2. Literature Review

2.1. Theoretical Framework

Biosecurity measures aim to prevent or slow the mobility of people and/or vectors in order to reduce the rate of contagion [5]. Tourism has therefore become a focal point of biosecurity interventions undertaken by government and others during pandemics [27,28]. For example, long-distance commercial aircraft, ships, trains, buses, and automobiles may all be controlled and monitored in coordination with public health authorities in order to limit the spread of COVID-19 [29]. Although the implementation of biosecurity restrictions led to a reduction in international tourism globally because of the pandemic, consideration of biosecurity measures are also an element of tourism industry recovery and rebuilding plans because of the role they can play in restoring customer confidence and risk perceptions [30]. For example, the use of NPI biosecurity measures has been shown to be related to psychological and financial resilience [31] as well as experience of COVID-19, wearing masks, and entering quarantine [32]. Studies have also found that the value-attitude-behavior model and the moderating role of tourist’s personalities are significant for COVID-19 biosecurity [33]. Researchers identified that tourist values, attitudes, personal norm, social norm, and tourist biosecurity behaviors are different depending on international travel frequency while frequency has also been found to influences US tourists’ biosecurity behaviors [26]. However, despite the potential importance of values, attitudes, interventions, behaviors, tourist characteristics (e.g., gender, age), and travel frequency on international travel following a pandemic, comprehensive integrated research on how these factors influence international travel consumers’ COVID-19 biosecurity behaviors is limited. Thus, this study aims to identify the relationships between the values, attitudes, interventions, and behaviors, along with the moderators of gender, age, and travel frequency in the context of COVID-19 biosecurity for international tourism. 

2. Explain the methodology clearly; the variables and measurements used
3. RESPONSE: Thank you so much for your thoughtful comments. As you suggested, we have explained the methods section clearly, along with the variables and measurements as follows (please also refer to the blue text on lines 185-242 of the revised manuscript):
4. Methods

3.1. Measurement

This study has applied prior validated multi-measurement questions, which were reworded to fit the study context [42]. The measurements consist of 18 items that measure four constructs including: values on COVID-19, attitudes toward COVID-19 biosecurity, COVID-19 interventions of travel, and COVID-19 biosecurity behaviors for travel. Six items addressing values on COVID-19 biosecurity for travel were generated from previous studies (e.g., “Participating in human biosecurity is an ethically right action when traveling during the pandemic”) [26]. Three items relevant to attitudes toward biosecurity for travel were based on existing literature (e.g., “Participating in human biosecurity is an ethically right action when traveling during the pandemic”) [7]. Three items regarding COVID-19 interventions for travel were adapted from past research (e.g., “Participating in human biosecurity is an ethically right action when traveling during the pandemic”) [13]. COVID-19 biosecurity behaviors for travel was assessed using six questions formed from Hall (e.g., “When traveling during the pandemic, I keep away from those who have the symptoms of COVID-19”) [4-5].

3.2. Content validity and Pre-test

In order to evaluate content validity, three scholars who are experts in health and travel relationships assessed the question items. In light of advice gained on the application of NPIs during pandemics [43], four questions related to COVID-19 biosecurity behaviors for travel were added to better capture the concept according (e.g., “I refrain from touching my eyes, nose, and mouth when traveling during the pandemic”). A pre-test was subsequently conducted on 40 US residents who had previously traveled overseas within the past five years. Two questions about guaranteeing the quality of survey data and time spent for answering all items were added based upon the pre-test (Appendix A).

3.3. Data Collection

Large panel digital surveys are frequently applied in research because of their capacity to obtain responses rapidly and in a cost-effective manner [31,44]. For collecting valid data, this study utilized the online survey firm Qualtrics who possesses one of the world’s largest panels as well as following and adhering to rigorous online survey procedures [45]. Based on data from the US National Travel & Tourism Office [46], respondents were drawn from a Qualtrics panel using a quota sampling technique according to age (18 and over) and gender of outbound tourists. In order to ensure commitment to the provision of considered and honest answers as well as overseas trip experience, respondents were selected via two screening questions. Scaled questions were rotated to avoid response bias. The online survey was administered on 1-5 September, 2020. Inappropriate responses were excluded from the dataset by analyzing p-p plots and correlations regarding time spent on answering all the questions since respondents who took less than the appropriate time were found to insignificantly correlate with responses from respondents that completed the survey with the established timeframe. After deleting respondents who finished the questionnaire in less than three minutes, 411 qualified responses were obtained for the analysis. In addition, 25 respondents who indicated they had no plans for international travel when COVID-19 ends, were eliminated from the data set. Thus, a total of 386 useable responses were analyzed.

3.4. Data Analysis

This study utilized partial least squares (PLS)-structural equation modelling (SEM) with multi-group analysis [47]. With formative second-order constructs, PLS-SEM is useful in estimating first order constructs concurrently [48]. PLS-SEM is also better than typical SEM (e.g., covariance based) for non-normal data, small samples, and/or for complicated models with MGA [49]. The data in this research have non-normality distribution with over 1.000 as absolute values of the items for skewness and/or kurtosis as shown in Table 1. For these reasons, this study utilized SmartPLS 3.2.2 to validate the measurement and structural models [47]. To verify the moderating effect of low and high big five personality groups, the researchers also used MGA according to PLS-SEM algorithms [50,51].

3. Discuss what the findings indicate; were they different than the findings in previous studies, What is new about this study.
4. RESPONSE: Thank you very much for your invaluable comments. In order to address your concerns, we have rewritten the entire section of discussion and conclusions, providing discussions, theoretical contributions, and practical implications as follows (also see the blue text on lines 281-371 of the revised manuscript):
5. Discussion and Conclusions

5.1. Discussion

Results revealed that values with respect to the importance of biosecurity has the strongest impact on attitudes in terms of COVID-19 related biosecurity, implying that international tourists with high biosecurity values are more likely to have positive attitudes toward pandemic biosecurity behavior. This reinforces the basic, yet significant understanding, that the preexisting beliefs of overseas travelers towards prevention practices are very important with respect to perceptions of health safety measures, extending findings of prior studies on the impact of values on attitudes [33-34]. Unexpectedly, interventions have a substantial mediating effect between attitudes and behaviors, showing that the nature of the NPIs is critical for tourist behavior. Attitudes toward pandemic biosecurity for travel greatly influences pandemic interventions for travel, revealing that people who travel internationally have positive attitudes on biosecurity and tend to accept pandemic-related interventions for travel, expanding previous findings on attitudes and NPIs [36-38]. In addition, attitudes substantially lead to pandemic biosecurity behaviors for tourism, broadening past research on attitudes and behaviors during a pandemic [33,39]. Importantly, pandemic interventions for tourism positively influence the biosecurity actions for tourism, enlarging the existing literature on the topic [14,19,40].

Regarding the gender moderator, the relationships between attitudes and behaviors as well as interventions and behaviors show the differences between males and females. Results infer that men with positive attitudes towards COVID-19 biosecurity for travel are more likely to practice appropriate biosecurity behaviors, while women with strong interventions of the COVID-19 pandemic for travel are more likely to follow biosecurity measures, which is partially consistent with existing literature [15,22,39]. With regard to the two age groups representing travelers below 40 years old and those 40 years old or over, it was found that older travel consumers tend to follow biosecurity rules more than younger travelers, although attitudes and behaviors remain important influences for younger travelers. These results are somewhat similar to previous research [22,41]. Significantly for the determination of targeted interventions in terms of travel frequency, more frequent international travelers are more likely to follow recommended biosecurity behaviors than infrequent travelers. These findings show some similarity to prior travel frequency studies [18-19,24-25,26].

5.2. Theoretical Implications

This work provides several theoretical contributions in terms of international travel behaviors and infectious disease control in responding to the COVID-19 pandemic. First, this study found that values, attitudes, and interventions are key factors which lead to travel consumers’ adoption of recommended biosecurity behaviors. The finding of this study provides new knowledge to researchers and public health educators. Second, this research sheds specific light on international travel related pandemic interventions, revealing the important mediating role of NPIs between attitudes and behaviors. These results therefore offer significant insights on the linkage of attitudes, interventions, and behaviors for future studies on tourism and COVID-19 as well as tourism and infectious disease in general. 

With respect to the moderating role of gender, men are more likely to have positive relationships between values and attitudes and attitudes and interventions. In contrast, women are more likely to have positive relationships between attitudes and behaviors and interventions and behavior. With respect to the moderating effect of age, older tourists tend to have stronger relationships between values and attitudes, attitudes and interventions, and interventions and behaviors, whereas younger tourists tend to have stronger relationship between attitudes and behaviors. These findings provide novel insights. Interestingly, with respect to the moderating role of tourism frequency, the research model supported that international tourists who travel more frequently have stronger relationships.     

5.3. Practical Implications

The findings of this work offer several practical implications for those responsible for international travelers following biosecurity measures. First, the high impact of values on attitudes in this study suggests that governments and tourism destinations should focus on promoting biosecurity values to potential overseas tourists in order to improve their attitudes toward pandemic biosecurity behaviors at destinations and when using transport. The mediating role of interventions between attitudes and behaviors also suggests that international and national health agencies and destination management organizations should emphasize the significance of NPIs to increase the willingness to adopt appropriate biosecurity behaviors when traveling while COVID-19 remains active. This could partly be done by online and mobile education campaigns as well as through social media networks and relevant print services to communicate to international tourists before and during travel to a destination [52]. The greater impact of interventions on behaviors than that of attitudes on behaviors suggests that policy makers and marketers should create strategies utilizing NPIs when they want overseas travelers to take biosecurity actions relevant to disease control.

The significant moderating effects of gender, age, and travel frequency provide clear insights for the better targeting and design of marketing and communication strategies when they wish to target international travel consumers to improve biosecurity behavior. For example, when targeting men, governments and health organizations can focus on the relationships between attitudes and behaviors as well as interventions and behaviors. It can be done by market segmentation strategies via different digital campaign contents for men or women separately. The different findings with respect to older and younger tourists suggest that marketing messages can developed and targeted by age. That is, when targeting older people, stakeholders could emphasize the values and interventions, while when targeting younger people, attitudes and behaviors would be highlighted. That could be implemented by advertising through different types of social media channels depending on age categories. The relationship between frequency of travel and biosecurity behaviors also provides clear opportunities for effective communication via frequent flier programs as well as the potential role for social norm-based travel behavioral interventions. Due to the strength of relationships from all hypotheses in the high frequency travel group compared to the low frequency travel group, frequency of travel clearly becomes a valuable tool for the development of marketing plans regarding tourism-related pandemic biosecurity actions.  

4. The hypotheses have not been presented on the basis of literature review, The hypotheses on the basis of literature review must be well presented, All hypotheses must be well discussed.
5. RESPONSE: We appreciate your bringing the issue. In order to resolve your concern, we have added the hypothesis development section as follows (Also refer to lines 116-182 in the blue text of the revised manuscript). Moreover, regrading further discussions on the hypotheses, please see ‘3. RESPONSE’ right above.

2.2. Hypothesis Development

Attitudes towards COVID-19 health measures, including vaccination, can be derived from ascertaining people’s values which, in turn, are found to affect COVID-19 related decision-making behavior among United States adults [34]. In the context of sustainable tourism behaviors, consumers’ perceived values, have a great effect on their attitudes toward on sustainable consumption behavior [35]. United States travel consumers’ values, on biosecurity during the COVID-19 pandemic is also identified as highly influencing attitudes towards biosecurity [33]. Grounded upon the literature review above, this study proposes the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 1 (H₁). Values on COVID-19 biosecurity for travel positively influence attitudes toward COVID-19 biosecurity for travel.

Public attitudes regarding various NPIs influence their adoption during COVID-19 [36]. Strong attitudes have been found to be a good predictor of adoption of four personal NPIs (handwashing, proper coughing habits, social distancing, and mask wearing) [37]. Attitudes regarding COVID-19 and the government/health system appear likely to influence compliance with preventive measures such as self-reporting, physical distancing, the use of face masks, and the acceptability of vaccines [38]. Drawing on this literature, this study posits the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 2 (H₂). Attitudes toward COVID-19 biosecurity for travel positively influence COVID-19 interventions for travel.

Individual attitudes toward COVID-19 related public health measures are closely related to compliance behavior with respect to such public health rules [39]. From a tourism sustainability perspective, consumers’ attitudes have a significant impact on their behavior in relation to environmentally friendly consumption [35]. During the COVID-19 pandemic, international travel consumers’ attitudes positively lead to their biosecurity behavior on COVID-19 [33]. Based on the literature review above, this study suggests the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 3 (H₃). Attitudes toward COVID-19 biosecurity for travel positively influence COVID-19 biosecurity behaviors for travel.

In the context of the 2009 H1N1 influenza pandemic, international travel consumers’ NPIs were found to have a significant influence on their behavioral intention [14]. During the COVID-19 pandemic, travelers’ NPIs significantly affected behavioral intention [40]. Furthermore, destination requirements for international travel consumers to adopt NPIs has a strong effect on their biosecurity behavior for travel during the COVID-19 pandemic [31]. In line with this literature, this study proposes the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 4 (H₄). COVID-19 interventions for travel positively influence COVID-19 biosecurity behaviors for travel.

Gender and age groups often display different infectious disease profiles in high incidence destinations [15]. For instance, in a cross-national study across eight countries, women are were found to be more likely to perceive COVID-19 as a very serious health problem, to agree with restraining public policy measures, and to comply with them [39]. In terms of the COVID-19 pandemic, significant gender-based differences for both psychosocial factors and the adoption of preventive behaviors have been found [22]. Different age-related influences on individuals’ reactions to the pandemic and vacation preferences also provide practical insights for stakeholders interested in revising their segmentation and targeting strategies once the pandemic subsides [41]. In light of this literature, this study assumes the two following hypotheses:

Hypothesis 5 (H₅). Gender significantly moderates the relationships between values, attitudes, interventions, and behaviors in the context of COVID-19 biosecurity for tourism.

Hypothesis 6 (H₆). Age significantly moderates the relationships between values, attitudes, interventions, and behaviors in the context of COVID-19 biosecurity for tourism.

In terms of travel frequency, significant effects have been found of the frequency of travel on mobility-resource ownership decisions [25]. Travel frequency has a strong influence on the spread of infectious diseases (e.g., COVID-19) and there are close relationships between frequency and basic reproduction numbers and global dynamics [19]. As well as contributing to the spread of novel diseases, travel frequency also has a great impact on the persistence of infectious diseases, such as mosquito-borne diseases [18]. Interestingly, travel frequency may also be related to other travel behavior. For example, travel frequency can predict consumer behavior of leisurely walking, travel time, and/or activities in the context of outdoor recreation participation [24]. Importantly, there is a suggestion that biosecurity behaviors may be related to international travel frequency [26]. Therefore, this study proposes the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 7 (H₇). Travel frequency significantly moderates the relationships between values, attitudes, interventions, and behaviors in the context of COVID-19 biosecurity for tourism.

Figure 1 displays the hypothesized relationships among values, attitudes, interventions, and behaviors, along with the three moderators of gender, age, and travel frequency.

5. Discuss limitations of the present study and future study scope and suggestions in conclusion
6. RESPONSE: With regard to your thoughtful suggestions, we have discussed limitations of the present study and future study scope and suggestions in the conclusion section as follows (also refer to the blue text on lines 373-395 of the revised manuscript):

5.4. Limitations and Future Research Directions

Although this work contributes to both theory and practice, there are several limits to the study to consider for future research opportunities. Since this study was conducted on US international tourists during the COVID-19 pandemic, the results need to be treated cautiously with respect to other countries, cultures, and time periods. Because demographic factors have significant impacts on COVID-19 biosecurity practices, future research on income, education, and marital status, and/or place of residence are recommended. These findings might also provide interesting insights for improved segmentation measures in the development of behavioral interventions to restrict infectious disease risk and the receptiveness of biosecurity measures to voluntary adoption during international travel.

Older travel consumers (60 years and older) can have substantially different behaviors from those of other age categories regarding pandemic biosecurity for tourism. Consequently, future studies may need focus on multiple age segments of travelers to identify similarities and differences among those segments. Furthermore, future research should attempt to compare US-based international travelers with those international travel consumers residing in different geographical regions to compare differences and similarities. Finally, the development of COVID-19 vaccine passports for the resumption of tourism is underway [53], although NPIs will potentially still be required at some destinations and especially during periods of future outbreaks. Accordingly, new research addressing the implications of vaccination for international tourism, both as a single variable and in conjunction with NPIs would be valuable and timely.

Thank you so much for your valuable comments!

Author Response File: Author Response.doc

Reviewer 3 Report

The thematic selected is quite interesting, but it needs further improvements,

In the abstract, please insert the date and the number of persons that answered the digital survey.

The same in Introduction and why were selected international travelers from the United States?

In section 2 (p. 3) is said "In order to ensure commitment to the provision of considered and honest answers as well as overseas trip experience, respondents were selected via two screening questions." which questions were used?

It is also said: After deleting respondents who finished the questionnaire in less than three minutes, 411 qualified respondents were collected." Some people can answer quickly as they are used to answer to surveys. Can you please explain your selection? The others can long a more time but interrupt the time of answer. You had already a first question that committed the respondent "Do you commit to providing your thoughtful and honest answers to the questions in this survey?"

Why was used only two groups of age? (Table 1). Old people (60 and more or 65 and more) can have different behaviors. Being a relevant variable in the study, why was not used, at least, 3 groups of age? You have more groups in the questionnaire used.

In section 4, please explain in a more clear way the sentence:

"Regarding the three moderators, results infer that men with positive attitudes towards COVID-19 biosecurity for travel are more likely to practice appropriate biosecurity behavior, while women with strong interventions of the COVID-19 pandemic for travel are more likely to follow biosecurity measures."

Also in Section 4. you mentioned "Older people tend to follow biosecurity rules more than younger people when traveling although attitudes and behaviors remain important influences in younger travelers." This states the need to use, at least, 3 groups of age in your research.

In the questionnaire used you have a question concerned with 

GQ2. How many times have you traveled internationally in the past 5 years? 
__________________time.

Why was not used a specific question related to 2020 (pandemic period)?

Please discuss better the results as you have only USA travelers. And please compare, if possible, your sample to the official data.

Author Response

Reviewer 3:

Open Review

(x) I would not like to sign my review report

( ) I would like to sign my review report

English language and style

( ) Extensive editing of English language and style required

( ) Moderate English changes required

( ) English language and style are fine/minor spell check required

(x) I don't feel qualified to judge about the English language and style

Yes      Can be improved        Must be improved       Not applicable

Is the content succinctly described and contextualized with respect to previous and present theoretical background and empirical research (if applicable) on the topic?

( )        (x)       ( )        ( )

Are the research design, questions, hypotheses and methods clearly stated?

(x)       ( )        ( )        ( )

Are the arguments and discussion of findings coherent, balanced and compelling?

( )        ( )        (x)       ( )

For empirical research, are the results clearly presented?

(x)       ( )        ( )        ( )

Is the article adequately referenced?

( )        (x)       ( )        ( )

Are the conclusions thoroughly supported by the results presented in the article or referenced in secondary literature?

( )        ( )        ( )        ( )

Your thoughtful feedback is greatly appreciated by the authors.

Comments and Suggestions for Authors

The thematic selected is quite interesting, but it needs further improvements,

We greatly appreciate your constructive comments.

In the abstract, please insert the date and the number of persons that answered the digital survey.

1. RESPONSE: Thank you so much for your thoughtful comment. As you suggested, we have added the date and number of respondents as follows (please also refer to the blue text in the lines 26-28):

To meet the study objectives, a digital survey was administered during September 1-5, 2020, which generated a total useable response of n=386. Data were analyzed using the partial least squares approach.

The same in Introduction and why were selected international travelers from the United States?

2. RESPONSE: Thank you very much for bringing the issue. In order to address your concern, we have explained the reason why we selected subjects from the United Sates as follows (please also see the blue text in lines 83-86):

In order to verifying the research model, research questions, and hypotheses, we conducted a digital survey during the first year of COVID-19 with international travelers from the United States having substantial overseas travel experience.

In section 2 (p. 3) is said "In order to ensure commitment to the provision of considered and honest answers as well as overseas trip experience, respondents were selected via two screening questions." which questions were used?

3. RESPONSE: As per your inquires, we have provided the questions from the questionnaire in the Appendix A as follows (also refer to the yellow highlight in lines 415-425):

Do you commit to providing your thoughtful and honest answers to the questions in this survey?

1. I will provide my best answers: Go to the next question.
2. I will not provide my best answers: End the survey.
3. I can’t promise either way: End the survey.

Screen question (SQ)

SQ1. Have you ever traveled internationally?

① Yes ☞ If you checked “yes,” please answer the following GQ1 question.

② No: Close the survey (We thank you for your time spent taking this survey.

Your response has been recorded.).

It is also said: After deleting respondents who finished the questionnaire in less than three minutes, 411 qualified respondents were collected." Some people can answer quickly as they are used to answer to surveys. Can you please explain your selection? The others can long a more time but interrupt the time of answer. You had already a first question that committed the respondent "Do you commit to providing your thoughtful and honest answers to the questions in this survey?"

4. RESPONSE: We appreciate your raising the issue. In order to resolve your concern, we have explained the reason why we deleted respondents who took less than 3 minutes of cut-off as follows (also see the blue text in lines 221-230):

Scaled questions were rotated to avoid response bias. The online survey was administered on 1-5 September, 2020. Inappropriate responses were excluded from the dataset by analyzing p-p plots and correlations regarding time spent on answering all the questions since respondents who took less than the appropriate time were found to insignificantly correlate with responses from respondents that completed the survey with the established timeframe. After deleting respondents who finished the questionnaire in less than three minutes, 411 qualified responses were obtained for the analysis. In addition, 25 respondents who indicated they had no plans for international travel when COVID-19 ends, were eliminated from the data set. Thus, a total of 386 useable responses were analyzed.

Why was used only two groups of age? (Table 1). Old people (60 and more or 65 and more) can have different behaviors. Being a relevant variable in the study, why was not used, at least, 3 groups of age? You have more groups in the questionnaire used.

5. RESPONSE: Thank you so much for raising the issue. As you can see our data set regarding the age categories below, the group of older respondents (60 and more or 65 and more) had only 57 cases (in the yellow highlight) which were not enough for multi-group analysis based on structural equation modeling. In addition, three and more groups can have also some problems with the sample size under the current study’s data.

Therefore, we decided to conduct research on the older group of respondents (60 years old and over) and recommended including more age categories in future studies (refer to the blue text in lines 385-388):

Older travel consumers (60 years and older) can have substantially different behaviors from those of other age categories regarding pandemic biosecurity for tourism. Consequently, future studies may need focus on multiple age segments of travelers to identify similarities and differences among those segments.

In section 4, please explain in a more clear way the sentence:

"Regarding the three moderators, results infer that men with positive attitudes towards COVID-19 biosecurity for travel are more likely to practice appropriate biosecurity behavior, while women with strong interventions of the COVID-19 pandemic for travel are more likely to follow biosecurity measures."

6. RESPONSE: With regard to your valuable suggestion, we have re-written the problem sentence as follows (refer to the blue text in lines 299-304):

Regarding the gender moderator, the relationships between attitudes and behaviors as well as interventions and behaviors show the differences between males and females. Results infer that men with positive attitudes towards COVID-19 biosecurity for travel are more likely to practice appropriate biosecurity behaviors, while women with strong interventions of the COVID-19 pandemic for travel are more likely to follow biosecurity measures, which is partially consistent with existing literature [15,22,39].

Also in Section 4. you mentioned "Older people tend to follow biosecurity rules more than younger people when traveling although attitudes and behaviors remain important influences in younger travelers." This states the need to use, at least, 3 groups of age in your research.

7. RESPONSE: We greatly appreciate bringing the issue. In order to address your concern, we have revised the problem sentence as follows (see the blue text in lines 304-308):

With regard to the two age groups representing travelers below 40 years old and those 40 years old or over, it was found that older travel consumers tend to follow biosecurity rules more than younger travelers, although attitudes and behaviors remain important influences for younger travelers. These results are somewhat similar to previous research [22,41].

In the questionnaire used you have a question concerned with

GQ2. How many times have you traveled internationally in the past 5 years?

__________________time.

Why was not used a specific question related to 2020 (pandemic period)?

8. RESPONSE: Thank you for raising the issue. Actually, we thought to ask the question as you suggested. However, since the world has been severely impacted due to COVID-19, there were not enough subjects who traveled internationally during the pandemic. Thus, we revised the question to read: ‘in the past 5 years….’. We hope this resolves your concern.

Please discuss better the results as you have only USA travelers. And please compare, if possible, your sample to the official data.

9. RESPONSE: Thank you very much for your insightful comments. As you suggested, we have re-written the entire ‘discussion and conclusions’ section as follows (refer to the blue text in lines 281-395):
10. Discussion and Conclusions

5.1. Discussion

Results revealed that values with respect to the importance of biosecurity has the strongest impact on attitudes in terms of COVID-19 related biosecurity, implying that international tourists with high biosecurity values are more likely to have positive attitudes toward pandemic biosecurity behavior. This reinforces the basic, yet significant understanding, that the preexisting beliefs of overseas travelers towards prevention practices are very important with respect to perceptions of health safety measures, extending findings of prior studies on the impact of values on attitudes [33-34]. Unexpectedly, interventions have a substantial mediating effect between attitudes and behaviors, showing that the nature of the NPIs is critical for tourist behavior. Attitudes toward pandemic biosecurity for travel greatly influences pandemic interventions for travel, revealing that people who travel internationally have positive attitudes on biosecurity and tend to accept pandemic-related interventions for travel, expanding previous findings on attitudes and NPIs [36-38]. In addition, attitudes substantially lead to pandemic biosecurity behaviors for tourism, broadening past research on attitudes and behaviors during a pandemic [33,39]. Importantly, pandemic interventions for tourism positively influence the biosecurity actions for tourism, enlarging the existing literature on the topic [14,19,40].

Regarding the gender moderator, the relationships between attitudes and behaviors as well as interventions and behaviors show the differences between males and females. Results infer that men with positive attitudes towards COVID-19 biosecurity for travel are more likely to practice appropriate biosecurity behaviors, while women with strong interventions of the COVID-19 pandemic for travel are more likely to follow biosecurity measures, which is partially consistent with existing literature [15,22,39]. With regard to the two age groups representing travelers below 40 years old and those 40 years old or over, it was found that older travel consumers tend to follow biosecurity rules more than younger travelers, although attitudes and behaviors remain important influences for younger travelers. These results are somewhat similar to previous research [22,41]. Significantly for the determination of targeted interventions in terms of travel frequency, more frequent international travelers are more likely to follow recommended biosecurity behaviors than infrequent travelers. These findings show some similarity to prior travel frequency studies [18-19,24-25,26].

5.2. Theoretical Implications

This work provides several theoretical contributions in terms of international travel behaviors and infectious disease control in responding to the COVID-19 pandemic. First, this study found that values, attitudes, and interventions are key factors which lead to travel consumers’ adoption of recommended biosecurity behaviors. The finding of this study provides new knowledge to researchers and public health educators. Second, this research sheds specific light on international travel related pandemic interventions, revealing the important mediating role of NPIs between attitudes and behaviors. These results therefore offer significant insights on the linkage of attitudes, interventions, and behaviors for future studies on tourism and COVID-19 as well as tourism and infectious disease in general. 

With respect to the moderating role of gender, men are more likely to have positive relationships between values and attitudes and attitudes and interventions. In contrast, women are more likely to have positive relationships between attitudes and behaviors and interventions and behavior. With respect to the moderating effect of age, older tourists tend to have stronger relationships between values and attitudes, attitudes and interventions, and interventions and behaviors, whereas younger tourists tend to have stronger relationship between attitudes and behaviors. These findings provide novel insights. Interestingly, with respect to the moderating role of tourism frequency, the research model supported that international tourists who travel more frequently have stronger relationships.     

5.3. Practical Implications

The findings of this work offer several practical implications for those responsible for international travelers following biosecurity measures. First, the high impact of values on attitudes in this study suggests that governments and tourism destinations should focus on promoting biosecurity values to potential overseas tourists in order to improve their attitudes toward pandemic biosecurity behaviors at destinations and when using transport. The mediating role of interventions between attitudes and behaviors also suggests that international and national health agencies and destination management organizations should emphasize the significance of NPIs to increase the willingness to adopt appropriate biosecurity behaviors when traveling while COVID-19 remains active. This could partly be done by online and mobile education campaigns as well as through social media networks and relevant print services to communicate to international tourists before and during travel to a destination [52]. The greater impact of interventions on behaviors than that of attitudes on behaviors suggests that policy makers and marketers should create strategies utilizing NPIs when they want overseas travelers to take biosecurity actions relevant to disease control.

The significant moderating effects of gender, age, and travel frequency provide clear insights for the better targeting and design of marketing and communication strategies when they wish to target international travel consumers to improve biosecurity behavior. For example, when targeting men, governments and health organizations can focus on the relationships between attitudes and behaviors as well as interventions and behaviors. It can be done by market segmentation strategies via different digital campaign contents for men or women separately. The different findings with respect to older and younger tourists suggest that marketing messages can developed and targeted by age. That is, when targeting older people, stakeholders could emphasize the values and interventions, while when targeting younger people, attitudes and behaviors would be highlighted. That could be implemented by advertising through different types of social media channels depending on age categories. The relationship between frequency of travel and biosecurity behaviors also provides clear opportunities for effective communication via frequent flier programs as well as the potential role for social norm-based travel behavioral interventions. Due to the strength of relationships from all hypotheses in the high frequency travel group compared to the low frequency travel group, frequency of travel clearly becomes a valuable tool for the development of marketing plans regarding tourism-related pandemic biosecurity actions.  

5.4. Limitations and Future Research Directions

Although this work contributes to both theory and practice, there are several limits to the study to consider for future research opportunities. Since this study was conducted on US international tourists during the COVID-19 pandemic, the results need to be treated cautiously with respect to other countries, cultures, and time periods. Because demographic factors have significant impacts on COVID-19 biosecurity practices, future research on income, education, and marital status, and/or place of residence are recommended. These findings might also provide interesting insights for improved segmentation measures in the development of behavioral interventions to restrict infectious disease risk and the receptiveness of biosecurity measures to voluntary adoption during international travel.

Older travel consumers (60 years and older) can have substantially different behaviors from those of other age categories regarding pandemic biosecurity for tourism. Consequently, future studies may need focus on multiple age segments of travelers to identify similarities and differences among those segments. Furthermore, future research should attempt to compare US-based international travelers with those international travel consumers residing in different geographical regions to compare differences and similarities. Finally, the development of COVID-19 vaccine passports for the resumption of tourism is underway [53], although NPIs will potentially still be required at some destinations and especially during periods of future outbreaks. Accordingly, new research addressing the implications of vaccination for international tourism, both as a single variable and in conjunction with NPIs would be valuable and timely.    

Moreover, we have provided the future research direction regarding the comparative research on USA international travel consumer behavior from other countries’ international travel consumer behavior in the sub-section of Limitations and Future Research Directions as follows (see the blue text in lines 388-390):

We greatly appreciate your invaluable comments on our paper.

Author Response File: Author Response.doc

Round 2

Reviewer 1 Report

The article has been revised and it is recommended to receive it.

Author Response

Summary of Revisions and Responses to Reviewers’ Comments

Title: Factors affecting pandemic biosecurity behaviors of international travelers: Moderating roles of gender, age, and travel frequency

Manuscript ID: sustainability-1412253.R2

Journal name: Sustainability

Reviewer and Editor’s Comments to Author:

Reviewer 1:

Open Review

(x) I would not like to sign my review report

( ) I would like to sign my review report

English language and style

( ) Extensive editing of English language and style required

( ) Moderate English changes required

( ) English language and style are fine/minor spell check required

(x) I don't feel qualified to judge about the English language and style

Yes      Can be improved        Must be improved       Not applicable

Is the content succinctly described and contextualized with respect to previous and present theoretical background and empirical research (if applicable) on the topic?

(x)       ( )        ( )        ( )

Are the research design, questions, hypotheses and methods clearly stated?

(x)       ( )        ( )        ( )

Are the arguments and discussion of findings coherent, balanced and compelling?

(x)       ( )        ( )        ( )

For empirical research, are the results clearly presented?

(x)       ( )        ( )        ( )

Is the article adequately referenced?

(x)       ( )        ( )        ( )

Are the conclusions thoroughly supported by the results presented in the article or referenced in secondary literature?

( )        ( )        ( )        ( )

Your favorable feedback is greatly appreciated by the authors.

Comments and Suggestions for Authors

The article has been revised and it is recommended to receive it.

RESPONSE: We greatly appreciate your decision on our paper as the acceptance.

Submission Date

23 September 2021

Date of this review

30 Oct 2021 11:29:20

Thank you very much your sincere review on our paper.

Author Response File: Author Response.doc