Participation and Achievement in the Summer Paralympic Games: The Influence of Income, Sex, and Assistive Technology
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- The number of Paralympians participating in the Summer Paralympic Games by income level and sex;
- The number of Paralympians participating in selected events requiring assistive products (wheelchairs, hand cycles, and prostheses) by income level; and
- Medal achievement by income level in all events and events requiring assistive products.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Research Design
2.2. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
2.3. Data Extraction and Synthesis
- Number of Paralympic Games attended;
- Number of Paralympians sent each year between 1960–2016, disaggregated by sex;
- Number of medals won, disaggregated by type of medal (gold, silver, and bronze); and
- Medal results for events requiring the use of assistive products (wheelchairs, prostheses, and hand cycles).
2.4. Data Analysis
2.5. Ethical Approval
3. Results
3.1. Participation and Achievement in Summer Paralympic Games (1960–2016)
3.2. Participation and Achievement in Events Requiring Assistive Products
4. Discussion
5. Limitations
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Disclaimer
Appendix A. List of Countries Included in the Research
- Afghanistan
- Albania
- Algeria
- Andorra
- Angola
- Antigua and Barbuda
- Argentina
- Armenia
- Aruba
- Australia
- Austria
- Azerbaijan
- Bahamas
- Bahrain
- Bangladesh
- Barbados
- Belarus
- Belgium
- Benin
- Bermuda
- Bosnia and Herzegovina
- Botswana
- Brazil
- Brunei Darussalam
- Bulgaria
- Burkina Faso
- Burundi
- Cambodia
- Cameroon
- Canada
- Cape Verde
- Central African Republic
- Chile
- Chinese Taipei
- Colombia
- Comoros
- Congo
- Costa Rica
- Cote D’Ivoire
- Croatia
- Cuba
- Cyprus
- Czech Republic
- Democratic People’s Republic of Korea
- Democratic Republic of the Congo
- Denmark
- Djibouti
- Dominican Republic
- Ecuador
- Egypt
- El Salvador
- Equatorial Guinea
- Estonia
- Ethiopia
- Faroe Islands
- Fiji
- Finland
- France
- Gabon
- Gambia
- Georgia
- Germany
- Ghana
- Greece
- Guatemala
- Guinea-Bissau
- Haiti
- Honduras
- Hong Kong
- Hungary
- Iceland
- India
- Indonesia
- Iraq
- Ireland
- Iran (Islamic Republic of)
- Israel
- Italy
- Jamaica
- Japan
- Jordan
- Kazakhstan
- Kenya
- Kuwait
- Kyrgyzstan
- Lao People’s Democratic Republic
- Latvia
- Lebanon
- Lesotho
- Liberia
- Libya
- Liechtenstein
- Lithuania
- Luxembourg
- Macau
- Madagascar
- Malawi
- Malaysia
- Mali
- Malta
- Mauritania
- Mauritius
- Mexico
- Mongolia
- Montenegro
- Morocco
- Mozambique
- Myanmar
- Namibia
- Nepal
- Netherlands
- New Zealand
- Nicaragua
- Niger
- Nigeria
- North Macedonia
- Norway
- Oman
- Pakistan
- Palestine
- Panama
- Papua New Guinea
- People’s Republic of China
- Peru
- Philippines
- Poland
- Portugal
- Puerto Rico
- Qatar
- Republic of Korea
- Republic of Moldova
- Romania
- Russia
- Rwanda
- Samoa
- San Marino
- São Tomé and Príncipe
- Saudi Arabia
- Senegal
- Serbia
- Seychelles
- Sierra Leone
- Singapore
- Slovakia
- Slovenia
- Solomon Islands
- Somalia
- South Africa
- Spain
- Sri Lanka
- Sudan
- Suriname
- Sweden
- Switzerland
- Syrian Arab Republic
- Tajikistan
- Thailand
- Timor Leste
- Togo
- Tonga
- Trinidad and Tobago
- Tunisia
- Turkey
- Turkmenistan
- Uganda
- Ukraine
- United Arab Emirates
- United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
- United Republic of Tanzania
- United States of America
- Uruguay
- US Virgin Islands
- Uzbekistan
- Vanuatu
- Venezuela
- Viet Nam
- Yemen
- Zambia
- Zimbabwe
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Participation and Achievement | Low | Lower Middle | Upper Middle | High | All Countries |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Paralympians representing countries (n) | 672 | 4625 | 5528 | 24,773 | 35,598 |
Male (n) | 483 | 3237 | 3871 | 17,583 | 25,174 |
Female (n) | 189 | 1388 | 1657 | 7190 | 10,424 |
Proportion female, Overall (%) | 28.13 | 30.01 | 29.97 | 29.02 | 29.28 |
Achievement, mean per country (%, 95% CI) 1 | 5.44 | 19.97 | 27.72 * | 36.99 * | 22.63 |
Proportion of countries with no medal achievement (%) | 72.73 | 30.77 | 25.00 | 17.65 | 36.31 |
Participation | Low | Low Middle | Upper Middle | High | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Events requiring assistive products participated in since 1996 (n) | 9 | 103 * | 160 * | 612 ** | |
Events participated in where a medal was won (%) | 0.00 | 22.33 * | 27.50 * | 46.57 ** | |
Achievements 2 | Low | Low middle | Upper middle | High | Overall medals |
Wheelchair basketball | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 90 (100%) | 90 |
Wheelchair fencing | 0.00 | 8 (3.5%) | 43 (18.9%) | 176 (77.6%) | 227 |
Wheelchair tennis | 0.00 | 0.00 | 1 (1.0%) | 93 (99.0%) | 94 |
Wheelchair rugby | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 15 (100.0%) | 15 |
Wheelchair athletics 100 m track race (classification T32-34 and 51-54) | 0.00 | 2 (1.5%) | 25 (18.8%) | 106 (79.7%) | 133 |
Long jump with prosthesis (classification F42-44) | 0.00 | 0.00 | 4 (7.4%) | 50 (92.6%) | 54 |
Athletics: Running with prosthesis 100 m Classification T42-44 | 0.00 | 1 (1.8%) | 6 (11.1%) | 47 (87.0%) | 54 |
Athletics: Running with prosthesis 200 m Classification T44 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 4 (13.3%) | 26 (86.7%) | 30 |
Athletics: Running with prosthesis 400 m Classification T44 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 2 (11.1%) | 16 (88.9%) | 18 |
Athletics: relay 4 × 100 m Classification T44-46 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 4 (26.067%) | 11 (72.4%) | 15 |
Hand cycle race | 0 | 0 | 1 (1.0%) | 92 (99.0%) | 93 |
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Oggero, G.; Puli, L.; Smith, E.M.; Khasnabis, C. Participation and Achievement in the Summer Paralympic Games: The Influence of Income, Sex, and Assistive Technology. Sustainability 2021, 13, 11758. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132111758
Oggero G, Puli L, Smith EM, Khasnabis C. Participation and Achievement in the Summer Paralympic Games: The Influence of Income, Sex, and Assistive Technology. Sustainability. 2021; 13(21):11758. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132111758
Chicago/Turabian StyleOggero, Giulia, Louise Puli, Emma Maria Smith, and Chapal Khasnabis. 2021. "Participation and Achievement in the Summer Paralympic Games: The Influence of Income, Sex, and Assistive Technology" Sustainability 13, no. 21: 11758. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132111758
APA StyleOggero, G., Puli, L., Smith, E. M., & Khasnabis, C. (2021). Participation and Achievement in the Summer Paralympic Games: The Influence of Income, Sex, and Assistive Technology. Sustainability, 13(21), 11758. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132111758