2.1. Materials
The analysis in the first part of this study relies on 9 widely used KPIs and 2 nonfinancial variables, namely company age and size. The KPIs and variables come from 1 or more of the following 3 sources. The first source is the DuPont model, which analyses an entity’s return on its equity by examining its profit margin, asset turnover, and financial leverage [
17]. Empirical investigations published in scholarly literature during the last ten years comprise the second source. The third source is the Thai regulatory authority that governs non-life insurance, the Office of Insurance Commission. It discloses financial information and key performance indicators regarding the Thai non-life insurance companies on monthly, quarterly, and annual bases [
16].
Table 1 lists all 11 variables and their operational definitions.
Four KPIs commonly used to measure profitability are: return on assets (ROA), return on equity (ROE), operating profit margin ratio, and net profit margin ratio. The profitability and liquidity of Thai non-life insurance companies were important concerns during the 2011 flooding due to the large claims they had to pay and subsequent new, more expansive conditions for purchasing reinsurance. Such adverse conditions normally lead to consolidation in an industry as weakened companies seek to liquidate assets and/or merge with stronger firms in order to survive and grow their business.
The return on assets (ROA) is a financial ratio many researchers employ to assess how well management uses a company’s total resources to generate earnings [
18,
19,
20,
21,
22,
23,
24,
25,
26,
27]. Return on equity (ROE), which measures profit earned with the money shareholders have invested, is a similar measure [
18,
19,
21,
22,
23,
24,
25,
28,
29,
30,
31].
Both the operating profit margin (OPM) and net profit margin (NPM) are relative indicators of how much profit a company makes after paying for its costs. The OPM measures that difference before taxation and interest expenses, while the NPM does so after taxation and interest expenses. The two ratios are expressed as a percentage of sales, and thus, also reflect a company’s success in controlling the costs and expenses associated with its business operations [
18,
22,
25,
29,
30,
32,
33].
Considering the many claims in the flood year, all 4 profitability indicators should have declined and then improved gradually during the subsequent period. Hence, the first null hypothesis:
Hypothesis 1 (H1). The profitability of Thai non-life insurance companies was unchanged during the study period (2008–2014).
In addition, 3 performance ratios indicate how efficiently management utilises its assets and equity relative to a company’s costs. The ratio of investment assets to policy liabilities (IAPL) shows the amount of the former produced with help from the latter [
18,
19,
22,
28,
34,
35]. It also makes use of the losses-incurred-to-earned-premiums-written ratio to reveal periods with unexpectedly high claim payments relative to income earned from policyholders [
18,
19,
22,
28,
34,
35].
The loss ratio (LR) represents total losses incurred (both paid and reserved) in claims minus premiums paid to reinsurance companies) plus adjustment expenses divided by the total premiums earned. It indicates whether a company is collecting more premiums than the amount it pays out in claims. A company with high loss claims may experience financial difficulties [
18,
19,
25,
26,
28,
30,
34,
35,
36].
Put simply, the combined ratio (CBR) is calculated by taking incurred losses plus operating expenses and dividing them by earned premiums. This ratio is a quick, simple, and widely used indicator of an insurance company’s financial health [
20,
25,
26,
30].
Given their popularity among researchers and the availability of appropriate data, this study has adopted these 3 ratios to discover whether the cost efficiency of non-life insurance companies’ financial performance dropped during the flood year and recovered afterwards. Hence, the second null hypothesis is:
Hypothesis 2 (H2). The cost efficiency performance of Thai non-life insurance companies was unchanged during the study period (2008−2014).
Typically, insurance companies maintain their liquidity at a level that allows them to pay their liabilities. The sudden occurrence of huge claims, however, can pose a serious challenge for them. That is true even if they already have reinsured most of the losses and thus have transferred most of the associated risks to reinsurers. Although they ultimately will bear only a minor portion of the losses, the general practice is for insurance companies initially to pay policyholders’ claims and to recover those payments from the reinsurers at a later date. Therefore, despite transferring most of the risks associated with flood damages to reinsurers, a non-life insurance company potentially may face a liquidity crisis when it suddenly receives a large number of claims. In response, management must increase the company’s liquidity either through large-scale borrowing or soliciting additional shareholder equity.
The debt-to-equity (DE) ratio is a key financial performance indicator frequently used to measure a company’s leverage. The acceptable DE ratio level varies according to multiple factors including profitability, cash flow, and capital intensity. The median DE ratio also differs across industries. For example, capital-intensive industries, such as utilities, have relatively high DE ratios, while labour-intensive industries, like most services, have relatively low ones. Generally, ratios of 0.5 and below are considered excellent, while ratios above 2.0, usually are viewed unfavourably. The typical median DE ratio of U.S.-based, publicly-traded insurance companies is between 0.2 and 0.3.
Studies employing the DE ratio to indicate insurance companies’ financial stability have found that the ones with higher DE levels put their liquidity at risk [
18,
21,
22,
23,
25,
27,
31,
34,
36]. Consequently, investors, creditors, and other stakeholders rely on this ratio to analyse how well a given company would be able to fulfill its debt obligations in the event of an insured natural catastrophe or liquidation. Hence, the third null hypothesis is:
Hypothesis 3 (H3). The debt-to-equity ratio of Thai non-life insurance companies was unchanged during the study period (2008–2014).
Due to their age, older firms are more experienced and have established reputations that allow them to earn a higher margin on sales and thus greater profits [
37,
38,
39,
40,
41,
42,
43]. However, some researchers argue that older firms are more bureaucratic and therefore less flexible, slower to adapt themselves to shifting market conditions, and less profitable [
44]. Hence, the strength and direction of the variable’s posited effect here are uncertain and require empirical investigation.
The size of a company’s insurance business also affects its financial performance [
40,
45,
46,
47,
48,
49]. Written premiums constitute the main source of an insurance company’s revenue and therefore are a good indicator of its size. A larger insurer can exploit economies of scale to become more efficient in using these premiums to earn income compared to a smaller one. Furthermore, regulators are less likely to liquidate large insurers. Therefore, small insurers are more vulnerable to insolvency [
49]. Additionally, a small company may find it more difficult to compete on price, name recognition, or the development and introduction of new products. Larger sized firms thus may tend to be technically more efficient than smaller ones. However, large size also may be associated with certain inefficiencies [
50]. Numerous scholars have examined the effect of an insurance company’s size on its efficiency. Yao et al. [
51] evaluated the technical efficiency of 22 insurance businesses in China using the DEA approach. They investigated the hypothesis that large insurers are technically more efficient than small insurers. This argument was based on the fact that, while small insurance businesses offer more affordable services, large insurance businesses are more resistant to bankruptcy. Using a survey of Greek insurance companies, Borges, Nektarios, and Barros [
52] similarly found that large, listed life insurance businesses are more efficient. According to Barros, Nektarios, and Assaf [
53], though, the variable “large size” has a detrimental effect on efficiency.
Besides written premiums, though, insurance companies generate income through their investments and by holding, using and/or disposing, over a period of time, of other assets (including property, plant and equipment, intangible assets, and property right assets) as well. Total assets, therefore, also ought to affect their efficiency scores.
However, that may be, the efficiency with which Thai non-life insurance companies convert written premiums into operating profit should drop due to losses experienced during the flooding and subsequently recover. Hence, the fourth, fifth, and sixth null hypotheses are:
Hypothesis 4 (H4). There is no statistically significant difference between insurance companies’ efficiency score averages during the study’s periods (before, during, and after the 2011 floods).
Hypothesis 5 (H5). Thai non-life insurance companies’ age does not affect their technical efficiency scores.
Hypothesis 6 (H6). Thai non-life insurance companies’ total assets do not affect their technical efficiency scores.
2.2. Methods
This study analysed panel data for 58 Thai non-life insurance companies for the period from 2008 through 2014. Thailand’s Office of Insurance Commission (OIC) was the primary data source. Analysis of these data involved the application of both descriptive statistics (percentages, means, and standard deviations) and inferential statistics-
t-tests for means of independent samples, correlation, data envelopment analysis (DEA) [
54,
55], and Tobit regression. The first 3 hypotheses were investigated via
t-tests for both paired and independent samples. Such tests were particularly well-suited to discovering whether variables differed significantly between pre- and post-flood years. Tests of the fourth, fifth, and sixth hypotheses relied on DEA and Tobit regression analyses. They involved using DEA to calculate technical efficiency scores as a first step and then in a second step employing a Tobit regression model to discover test variables potentially influencing those scores.
The concept of efficiency developed by Farrell [
54] is a relationship between the outputs and the inputs employed in their production. One way to view technical efficiency is to see it as the ability to acquire maximum output from a given set of inputs. Charnes et al. [
55] created the DEA approach with constant return to scale (CRS), a widely used mathematical tool for determining technical efficiency in a variety of industries. The envelopment surface varies according to the model’s scale assumptions. Generally, two-scale assumptions are in use by researchers: constant returns to scale and variable returns to scale (VRS). The latter category contains both increasing and decreasing scale returns. Conversely, CRS reflects the fact that output fluctuates directly in proportion to changes in inputs. In either case, DEA evaluates the efficiency of each individual entity relative to the maximum efficiency score that can be achieved with a given set of inputs. This method makes no assumptions about the analytical form of the observed inputs and outputs, and thus allows for the use of a variety of measurement metrics. Accordingly, DEA produces relative efficiency metrics, which vary according to the number of entities involved, as well as the number and structure of the input and output variables. The DEA scores presented here were generated by a model that assumes varying returns to scale. That is because insurance company decision makers have considerable control over improving input or output levels. The model also has an output orientation because it elucidates the extent to which operating profit can be increased without increasing input levels.
The second stage of the analysis ascertains factors contributing to the technical efficiency scores. In output-oriented DEA models, these scores have values between 0 and 1. For this reason, the limited dependent variable regression technique (Hoff, 2007; Osgood, Finken and McMorris, 2002) is used to identify linkages between the scores and relevant model elements. Although some scholars criticise its utilization [
56], censored regression models, also known as Tobit regression models, are employed frequently in practical work. By way of comparison, the use of standard linear regression often is inadvisable and may yield badly skewed results when least-squares assumption requirements are not satisfied [
8]. The selection of the best performing Tobit model relies on log-likelihood (ll), Akaike’s information criteria (AIC) [
57] and the Bayesian information criterion (BIC) [
58].