The Prevalence of Risky Driving Habits in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design and Setting
2.2. Study Participants
2.3. Study Variables
2.4. Data Collection
2.5. Study Size
2.6. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Demographic Characteristics
3.2. Descriptive Statistics
3.3. Reliability Test
3.4. Differences in Prevalence of Risky Driving Habits Based on Demographic Characteristics
3.5. Consideration of Demographic Factors and Risky Driving Habits
4. Discussion
5. Recommendations
6. Limitations
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Gopalakrishnan, S. A Public Health Perspective of Road Traffic Accidents. J. Fam. Med. Prim. Care 2012, 1, 144–150. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vos, T.; Lim, S.S.; Abbafati, C.; Abbas, K.M.; Abbasi, M.; Abbasifard, M.; Abbasi-Kangevari, M.; Abbastabar, H.; Abd-Allah, F.; Abdelalim, A.; et al. Global burden of 369 diseases and injuries in 204 countries and territories, 1990–2019: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study. Lancet 2020, 396, 1204–1222. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dalal, K.; Lin, Z.; Gifford, M.; Svanström, L. Economics of global burden of road traffic injuries and their relationship with health system variables. Int. J. Prev. Med. 2013, 4, 1442. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Chekijian, S.; Paul, M.; Kohl, V.P.; Walker, D.M.; Tomassoni, A.J.; Cone, D.C.; Vaca, F.E. The Global Burden of Road Injury: Its Relevance to the Emergency Physician. Emerg. Med. Int. 2014, 2014, 139219. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Jafarpour, S.; Rahimi-Movaghar, V. Determinants of risky driving behavior: A narrative review. Med. J. Islam. Repub. Iran 2014, 28, 142. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Goniewicz, M.; Pawłowski, W.; Fiedor, P. Road accident rates: Strategies and programmes for improving road traffic safety. Eur. J. Trauma Emerg. Surg. 2015, 42, 433–438. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- World Health Organization. Global Status Report on Road Safety; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2015. [Google Scholar]
- Transport injuries and deaths in the Eastern Mediterranean Region: Findings from the Global Burden of Disease 2015 Study. Int. J. Public Health 2018, 63, 187–198. [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ministry of Interior—Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Available online: https://www.moi.gov.sa (accessed on 28 June 2021).
- Lee, S.M.; Al-Mansour, A.I. Development of a new traffic safety education material for the future drivers in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. J. King Saud Univ. Eng. Sci. 2020, 32, 19–26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Al-Ghamdi, A.S. Using logistic regression to estimate the influence of accident factors on accident severity. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2002, 34, 729–741. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jamal, A.; Rahman, M.T.; Al-Ahmadi, H.M.; Mansoor, U. The Dilemma of Road Safety in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia: Consequences and Prevention Strategies. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 17, 157. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Islam, M.; Alharthi, M.; Alam, M. The Impacts of Climate Change on Road Traffic Accidents in Saudi Arabia. Climate 2019, 7, 103. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ghaffar, U.B.; Ahmed, S. A Review of Road traffic accident in Saudi Arabia: The neglected epidemic. Indian J. Forensic Community Med. 2015, 2, 242. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Traffic Accidents Site by Region in KSA. Available online: https://www.stats.gov.sa/ar/3465 (accessed on 22 June 2021).
- Alghnam, S.; Alrowaily, M.; Alkelya, M.; Alsaif, A.; Almoaiqel, F.; Aldegheishem, A. The prevalence of seatbelt and mobile phone use among drivers in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: An observational study. J. Saf. Res. 2018, 66, 33–37. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- KSA Traffic Accident Statistic. Available online: https://data.gov.sa/Data/en/dataset/traffic-accident-statistics-as-of-1439-h/resource/b3f75cc8-8d98-4b99-b699-9efb52014c45 (accessed on 28 June 2021).
- Ramisetty-Mikler, S.; Almakadma, A. Attitudes and behaviors towards risky driving among adolescents in Saudi Arabia. Int. J. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 2016, 3, 55–63. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Ageli, M.M. Road Traffic Accidents in Saudi Arabia: An ARDL Approach and Multivariate Granger Causality. Available online: http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/ijef/article/view/28424 (accessed on 27 June 2021).
- Reason, J.; Manstead, A.; Stradling, S.; Baxter, J.; Campbell, K. Errors and violations on the roads: A real distinction? Ergonomics 1990, 33, 1315–1332. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lajunen, T.; Summala, H. Can we trust self-reports of driving? Effects of impression management on driver behaviour questionnaire responses. Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav. 2003, 6, 97–107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stanojević, P.; Lajunen, T.; Jovanović, D.; Sârbescu, P.; Kostadinov, S. The driver behaviour questionnaire in South-East Europe countries: Bulgaria, Romania and Serbia. Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav. 2018, 53, 24–33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bener, A.; Verjee, M.; Dafeeah, E.E.; Yousafzai, M.T.; Mari, S.; Hassib, A.; Al-Khatib, H.; Choi, M.K.; Nema, N.; Özkan, T.; et al. A Cross “Ethnical” Comparison of the Driver Behaviour Questionnaire (DBQ) in an Economically Fast Developing Country: DBQ in Arab Gulf and South Asian countries. Glob. J. Health Sci. 2013, 5, 165. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Soliman, A.; Alhajyaseen, W.; Alfar, R.; Alkaabi, I. Changes in Driving Behavior Across Age Cohorts in an Arab Culture: The Case of State of Qatar. Procedia Comput. Sci. 2018, 130, 652–659. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Al Reesi, H.; Al Maniri, A.; Plankermann, K.; Al Hinai, M.; Al Adawi, S.; Davey, J.; Freeman, J. Risky driving behavior among university students and staff in the Sultanate of Oman. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2013, 58, 1–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Lawton, R.; Parker, D.; Manstead, A.S.R.; Stradling, S.G. The Role of Affect in Predicting Social Behaviors: The Case of Road Traffic Violations. J. Appl. Soc. Psychol. 1997, 27, 1258–1276. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Riyadh Urban Observatory. Available online: http://www.ruo.gov.sa/EN/RiyadhCity (accessed on 10 June 2021).
- Ministry of Communications and Information Technology of KSA. Available online: https://www.mcit.gov.sa/en/media-center/news/89698 (accessed on 25 June 2021).
- Messahel, F.; Seraj, M.; Al-Qasabi, Q.; El-Bakry, A.K. Trauma cases admitted to the surgical intensive care unit—Progress and outcome. Middle East. J. Anaesthesiol. 1996, 13, 585–591. [Google Scholar]
- El Bcheraoui, C.; Basulaiman, M.; Tuffaha, M.; Daoud, F.; Robinson, M.; Jaber, S.; Mikhitarian, S.; Wilson, S.; Memish, Z.A.; Al Saeedi, M.; et al. Get a license, buckle up, and slow down: Risky driving patterns among Saudis. Traffic Inj. Prev. 2015, 16, 587–592. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bener, A.; Özkan, T.; Lajunen, T. The Driver Behaviour Questionnaire in Arab Gulf countries: Qatar and United Arab Emirates. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2008, 40, 1411–1417. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sohrabivafa, M.; Tosang, M.A.; Zadeh, S.Z.M.; Goodarzi, E.; Asadi, Z.S.; Alikhani, A.; Khazaei, S.; Dehghani, S.L.; Beiranvand, R.; Khazaei, Z. Prevalence of Risky Behaviors and Related Factors among Students of Dezful. Iran. J. Psychiatry 2017, 12, 188–193. [Google Scholar]
- Fergusson, D.; Swain-Campbell, N.; Horwood, J. Risky driving behaviour in young people: Prevalence, personal characteristics and traffic accidents. Aust. N. Z. J. Public Health 2003, 27, 337–342. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Blows, S.; Ameratunga, S.; Ivers, R.; Lo, S.K.; Norton, R. Risky driving habits and motor vehicle driver injury. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2005, 37, 619–624. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Alghnam, S.; Towhari, J.; Alkelya, M.; Alsaif, A.; Alrowaily, M.; Alrabeeah, F.; Albabtain, I. The Association between Mobile Phone Use and Severe Traffic Injuries: A Case-Control Study from Saudi Arabia. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 2706. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Rhodes, N.; Pivik, K. Age and gender differences in risky driving: The roles of positive affect and risk perception. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2011, 43, 923–931. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Doecke, S.D.; Kloeden, C.N.; Dutschke, J.K.; Baldock, M.R.J. Safe speed limits for a safe system: The relationship between speed limit and fatal crash rate for different crash types. Traffic Inj. Prev. 2018, 19, 404–408. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alghnam, S.; Alkelya, M.; Alfraidy, M.; Al-Bedah, K.; Albabtain, I.T.; Alshenqeety, O. Outcomes of road traffic injuries before and after the implementation of a camera ticketing system: A retrospective study from a large trauma center in Saudi Arabia. Ann. Saudi Med. 2017, 37, 1–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Dula, C.S.; Ballard, M.E. Development and Evaluation of a Measure of Dangerous, Aggressive, Negative Emotional, and Risky Driving. J. Appl. Soc. Psychol. 2003, 33, 263–282. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hernández-Hernández, A.M.; Siqueiros-García, J.M.; Robles-Belmont, E.; Gershenson, C. Anger while driving in Mexico City. PLoS ONE 2019, 14, e0223048. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sullman, M.J.; Stephens, A.N.; Yong, M. Driving anger in Malaysia. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2014, 71, 1–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kim, K.; Ghimire, J.; Pant, P.; Yamashita, E. Self-reported handheld device use while driving. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2019, 125, 106–115. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Flaherty, M.R.; Kim, A.M.; Salt, M.D.; Lee, L.K. Distracted Driving Laws and Motor Vehicle Crash Fatalities. Pediatrics 2020, 145, e20193621. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mahfoud, Z.R.; Cheema, S.; Alrouh, H.; Al-Thani, M.H.; Al-Thani, A.A.M.; Mamtani, R. Seat belt and mobile phone use among vehicle drivers in the city of Doha, Qatar: An observational study. BMC Public Health 2015, 15, 937. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- AlKetbi, L.M.B.; Grivna, M.; Al Dhaheri, S. Risky driving behaviour in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates: A cross-sectional, survey-based study. BMC Public Health 2020, 20, 1324. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Al-Shammari, H.; Ling, C. Investigating the Effectiveness of a Traffic Enforcement Camera-System on the Road Safety in Saudi Arabia. In Proceedings of the Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing; Springer Science and Business Media LLC: New York, NY, USA, 2018; pp. 660–670. [Google Scholar]
- Sagberg, F.; Ingebrigtsen, R. Effects of a penalty point system on traffic violations. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2018, 110, 71–77. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- DeNicola, E.; Aburizaize, O.S.; Siddique, A.; Khwaja, H.; Carpenter, D.O. Road Traffic Injury as a Major Public Health Issue in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: A Review. Front. Public Health 2016, 4, 215. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Ansari, S.; Akhdar, F.; Mandoorah, M.; Moutaery, K. Causes and effects of road traffic accidents in Saudi Arabia. Public Health 2000, 114, 37–39. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mohamed, M.; Bromfield, N.F. Attitudes, driving behavior, and accident involvement among young male drivers in Saudi Arabia. Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav. 2017, 47, 59–71. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Al alweet, R.; Nugali, A.; Amer, S.A. Using Cellphone While Driving Among Saudi Drivers in Saudi Arabia, Cross Section Study. Ann. Public Health Epidemiol. 2018, 1. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cordellieri, P.; Baralla, F.; Ferlazzo, F.; Sgalla, R.; Piccardi, L.; Giannini, A.M. Gender Effects in Young Road Users on Road Safety Attitudes, Behaviors and Risk Perception. Front. Psychol. 2016, 7, 1412. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Ersan, Ö.; Üzümcüoğlu, Y.; Azık, D.; Fındık, G.; Kaçan, B.; Solmazer, G.; Özkan, T.; Lajunen, T.; Öz, B.; Pashkevich, A.; et al. Cross-cultural differences in driver aggression, aberrant, and positive driver behaviors. Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav. 2020, 71, 88–97. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Solmazer, G.; Azık, D.; Fındık, G.; Üzümcüoğlu, Y.; Ersan, Ö.; Kaçan, B.; Özkan, T.; Lajunen, T.; Öz, B.; Pashkevich, A.; et al. Cross-cultural differences in pedestrian behaviors in relation to values: A comparison of five countries. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2020, 138, 105459. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Burgut, H.R.; Bener, A.; Sidahmed, H.; Albuz, R.; Sanya, R.; Khan, W.A. Risk factors contributing to road traffic crashes in a fast developing country: The neglected health problem. Inj. Prev. 2010, 16, A75. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Arafa, A.; Saleh, L.H.; Senosy, S.A. Age-related differences in driving behaviors among non-professional drivers in Egypt. PLoS ONE 2020, 15, e0238516. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Why Young Drivers Are at Risk and What Can Be Done about It [Internet]. Brake The Road Safety Charity. Available online: https://www.brake.org.uk/get-involved/take-action/mybrake/knowledge-centre/young-drivers (accessed on 11 June 2021).
- KSA Unified National Platform. 2021. Available online: https://www.my.gov.sa/wps/portal/snp/main (accessed on 29 June 2021).
- Warner, H.W.; Özkan, T.; Lajunen, T.; Tzamalouka, G. Cross-cultural comparison of drivers’ tendency to commit different aberrant driving behaviours. Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav. 2011, 14, 390–399. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Özkan, T.; Lajunen, T.; Chliaoutakis, J.E.; Parker, D.; Summala, H. Cross-cultural differences in driving behaviours: A comparison of six countries. Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav. 2006, 9, 227–242. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cestac, J.; Paran, F.; Delhomme, P. Young drivers’ sensation seeking, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control and their roles in predicting speeding intention: How risk-taking motivations evolve with gender and driving experience. Saf. Sci. 2011, 49, 424–432. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lam, L.T. Distractions and the risk of car crash injury: The effect of drivers’ age. J. Saf. Res. 2002, 33, 411–419. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Young, K.; Salmon, P. Examining the relationship between driver distraction and driving errors: A discussion of theory, studies and methods. Saf. Sci. 2012, 50, 165–174. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Neyens, D.M.; Boyle, L.N. The effect of distractions on the crash types of teenage drivers. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2007, 39, 206–212. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Vehicle Safety [Internet]. Europe, 2016. 16p. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/transport/road_safety/sites/roadsafety/files/ersosynthesis2016-vehiclesafety15_en.pdf (accessed on 27 June 2021).
- Messnarz, R.; Much, A.; Kreiner, C.; Biro, M.; Gorner, J. Need for the Continuous Evolution of Systems Engineering Practices for Modern Vehicle Engineering. In Proceedings of the Programmieren für Ingenieure und Naturwissenschaftler, Ostrava, Czech Republic, 6–8 September 2017; Volume 748, pp. 439–452. [Google Scholar]
- Pawłowski, W.; Goniewicz, K.; Schwebel, D.C.; Shen, J.; Goniewicz, M. Road traffic injuries in Poland: Magnitude and risk factors. Eur. J. Trauma Emerg. Surg. 2019, 45, 815–820. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Abdullah, K.A.; Mourad, A.H.I.; Muhammad, A.U. Child passenger safety in the United Arab Emirates: A review. In Proceedings of the 2020 Advances in Science and Engineering Technology International Conferences (ASET), Dubai, United Arab Emirates, 9 April 2020; pp. 1–6. [Google Scholar]
- Palmer Peterson, H.; Al Kassim, Z. A case study on perceptions of public transportation in the eastern province of saudi arabia. Transp. Probl. 2020, 15, 5–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- De Winter, J.C.; Dodou, D. The Driver Behaviour Questionnaire as a predictor of accidents: A meta-analysis. J. Saf. Res. 2010, 41, 463–470. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Frequency | Percent | ||
---|---|---|---|
Gender | Male | 246 | 77.8 |
Female | 70 | 22.2 | |
Age | <20 | 6 | 1.9 |
20–39 | 184 | 58.2 | |
40–49 | 56 | 17.7 | |
≥50 | 70 | 22.2 | |
Education | High school or less | 44 | 13.9 |
Diploma | 39 | 12.3 | |
University | 170 | 53.8 | |
Higher education | 63 | 19.9 | |
Driving experience | <1 year | 45 | 14.2 |
2–5 years | 38 | 12.0 | |
5–9 years | 41 | 13.0 | |
10 years and above | 192 | 60.8 |
Mean | SD | RII | Rank * | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Check your speedometer and discover that you are unknowingly traveling faster than the legal limit. | 3.60 | 1.34 | 0.60 | 1 |
Lock yourself out of your car with the keys still inside. | 1.61 | 0.94 | 0.27 | 27 |
Become impatient with a slow driver in the outer lane and overtake on the inside. | 3.44 | 1.32 | 0.57 | 2 |
Drive especially close or “flash” the car in front as a signal for that driver to go faster or get out of your way. | 3.00 | 1.48 | 0.50 | 3 |
Forget where you left your car in a car park. | 2.18 | 1.08 | 0.36 | 8 |
Distracted or preoccupied, realize belatedly that the vehicle ahead has slowed, and had to slam on the brakes to avoid a collision. | 2.29 | 1.09 | 0.38 | 6 |
Intend to switch on the windscreen wipers, but switched on the lights instead, or vice versa. | 1.66 | 0.93 | 0.28 | 21 |
Turn left on to a main road into the path of an oncoming vehicle that you have not seen or whose speed you had misjudged. | 1.95 | 0.97 | 0.32 | 11 |
Misjudge the gap in a car park and nearly (or actually) hit an adjoining vehicle. | 1.51 | 0.90 | 0.25 | 29 |
Stuck behind a slow-moving vehicle on a two-lane highway and so you are driven by frustration to try to overtake in risky circumstances. | 1.95 | 1.08 | 0.33 | 13 |
Intending to drive to destination A, but instead you “wake up” to find yourself on route to B, where the latter is the more usual journey. | 2.26 | 1.14 | 0.38 | 7 |
Take a chance and cross on lights that have turned red. | 1.98 | 1.10 | 0.33 | 9 |
Angered by another driver’s behavior, you give chase to give him/her a piece of your mind | 1.64 | 1.01 | 0.27 | 25 |
Deliberately disregard the speed limits late at night or very early in the morning | 1.98 | 1.21 | 0.33 | 10 |
Lost in thought, you forget that your lights are on full beam until “flashed” by other motorists. | 1.77 | 0.91 | 0.30 | 18 |
Upon turning left, nearly hit a cyclist who has come upon your inside. | 1.49 | 0.87 | 0.25 | 30 |
Have an aversion to a particular class of road user and indicate your hostility by whatever means you can. | 1.66 | 1.10 | 0.28 | 22 |
Lost in thought or distracted, you fail to notice someone waiting at a zebra crossing. | 1.64 | 0.92 | 0.27 | 23 |
Misjudge speed of oncoming vehicle when overtaking. | 1.81 | 0.90 | 0.30 | 16 |
Hit something when reversing that you had not previously seen. | 1.92 | 0.93 | 0.32 | 14 |
Fail to notice someone stepping out from behind a bus or parked vehicle until it is nearly too late. | 1.59 | 0.89 | 0.26 | 28 |
Overtake a slow-moving vehicle on the right lane. | 2.62 | 1.27 | 0.44 | 5 |
Get into the wrong lane at a roundabout or approaching a road junction. | 1.95 | 0.98 | 0.32 | 12 |
Fail to read the signs correctly and exited from a roundabout on the wrong road. | 1.79 | 0.95 | 0.30 | 17 |
Fail to check your mirror before pulling out, changing lanes, turning, etc. | 1.64 | 0.95 | 0.27 | 24 |
Attempt to overtake a vehicle that you had not noticed was signaling its intention to turn right. | 1.89 | 0.98 | 0.31 | 15 |
Disregard red lights when driving late at night along empty roads. | 1.67 | 1.10 | 0.28 | 20 |
Drive with only “half-an-eye” on the road while looking at a mobile map apps, changing a CD or radio channel, etc. | 2.76 | 1.35 | 0.46 | 4 |
Fail to notice pedestrians crossing when turning into a side-street from a main road. | 1.75 | 1.01 | 0.29 | 19 |
Get involved in unofficial races with other drivers. | 1.38 | 0.92 | 0.23 | 31 |
Hit the brake too quickly on a slippery road. | 1.61 | 0.90 | 0.27 | 26 |
Overall (prevalence of risky driving habits in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia). | 2.00 | 0.66 | 0.33 |
Demographic Characteristics | Group | N | Mean | SD | F | p |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age (years) | <20 | 6 | 2.23 | 0.63 | 2.308 | 0.076 |
20–39 | 184 | 2.06 | 0.62 | |||
40–49 | 56 | 1.94 | 0.72 | |||
≥50 | 70 | 1.84 | 0.71 | |||
Education | High school or less | 44 | 2.02 | 0.78 | 0.614 | 0.606 |
Diploma | 39 | 1.87 | 0.47 | |||
University | 170 | 1.99 | 0.62 | |||
Higher education | 63 | 2.05 | 0.79 | |||
Driving experience | <1 year | 45 | 1.60 | 0.44 | 7.790 | <0.001 * |
2–5 years | 38 | 2.11 | 0.87 | |||
5–9 years | 41 | 2.21 | 0.59 | |||
≥10 years | 192 | 2.02 | 0.64 | |||
Gender | Male | 246 | 2.08 | 0.63 | 4.253 | <0.001 ** |
Female | 70 | 1.71 | 0.69 |
Unstandardized Coefficients | Standardized Coefficients | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model | B | Std. Error | Beta | t | p |
(Constant) | 1.97 | 0.47 | 4.21 | <0.001 ** | |
Gender | −0.37 | 0.17 | −0.23 | −2.12 | 0.035 ** |
Age | |||||
20–39 | 0.16 | 0.29 | 0.12 | 0.56 | 0.58 |
40–49 | 0.04 | 0.30 | 0.02 | 0.13 | 0.89 |
50 or more | −0.14 | 0.29 | −0.09 | −0.47 | 0.64 |
Education | |||||
Diploma | −0.15 | 0.14 | −0.07 | −1.07 | 0.28 |
University | −0.6 | −0.11 | −0.05 | −0.56 | 0.58 |
Higher education | 0.04 | 0.13 | 0.03 | 0.35 | 0.73 |
Driving Experience | |||||
2–5 years | 0.33 | 0.16 | 0.16 | 2.02 | 0.044 ** |
5–9 years | 0.21 | 0.22 | 0.10 | 0.95 | 0.34 |
10 or more years | 0.14 | 0.21 | 0.11 | 0.69 | 0.49 |
Using seatbelt | 0.28 | 0.16 | 0.10 | 1.79 | 0.08 |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Al-Wathinani, A.M.; Schwebel, D.C.; Al-Nasser, A.H.; Alrugaib, A.K.; Al-Suwaidan, H.I.; Al-Rowais, S.S.; AlZahrani, A.N.; Abushryei, R.H.; Mobrad, A.M.; Alhazmi, R.A.; et al. The Prevalence of Risky Driving Habits in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Sustainability 2021, 13, 7338. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13137338
Al-Wathinani AM, Schwebel DC, Al-Nasser AH, Alrugaib AK, Al-Suwaidan HI, Al-Rowais SS, AlZahrani AN, Abushryei RH, Mobrad AM, Alhazmi RA, et al. The Prevalence of Risky Driving Habits in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Sustainability. 2021; 13(13):7338. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13137338
Chicago/Turabian StyleAl-Wathinani, Ahmed M., David C. Schwebel, Abrar H. Al-Nasser, Afnan K. Alrugaib, Hessah I. Al-Suwaidan, Shahad S. Al-Rowais, Arwa N. AlZahrani, Rawan H. Abushryei, Abdulmajeed M. Mobrad, Riyadh A. Alhazmi, and et al. 2021. "The Prevalence of Risky Driving Habits in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia" Sustainability 13, no. 13: 7338. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13137338
APA StyleAl-Wathinani, A. M., Schwebel, D. C., Al-Nasser, A. H., Alrugaib, A. K., Al-Suwaidan, H. I., Al-Rowais, S. S., AlZahrani, A. N., Abushryei, R. H., Mobrad, A. M., Alhazmi, R. A., Althunayyan, S. M., & Goniewicz, K. (2021). The Prevalence of Risky Driving Habits in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Sustainability, 13(13), 7338. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13137338